An inquisition was a legal process used by the Catholic Church to examine and judge cases within its area of authority. Over time, the word "inquisition" came to describe various official courts during the medieval and Reformation periods, which aimed to stop actions considered harmful to the Church, such as heresy, apostasy, blasphemy, witchcraft, and other unusual customs. These courts sometimes used methods like violence, isolation, or the threat of torture to get people to confess or accuse others. Inquisitions focused on stopping religious crimes, such as heresy, began in the 12th century in the Kingdom of France, especially among groups like the Cathars and Waldensians. These early inquisitorial courts, which operated until the mid-15th century, are known as the Medieval Inquisition. Other groups investigated by medieval inquisitions, mainly in France and Italy, included the Spiritual Franciscans, the Hussites, and the Beguines. Starting in the 1250s, inquisitors were usually chosen from the Dominican Order, replacing the earlier practice of using local clergy as judges.
Inquisitions later spread to other European countries, leading to the Spanish Inquisition and the Portuguese Inquisition. These inquisitions often targeted groups such as the New Christians or Conversos (Jews who converted to Christianity to avoid persecution), the Marranos (Jews forced to convert under threat), and the Moriscos (Muslims who converted to Catholicism), because of fears they secretly practiced their old religions or might rebel, as seen in past uprisings like the Morisco Rebellions. Spain and Portugal also held inquisitorial courts not only in Europe but also in their overseas territories, including the Goa Inquisition, the Peruvian Inquisition, and the Mexican Inquisition. In the Papal States, these courts were called the Roman Inquisition.
The reach of inquisitions expanded greatly during the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation. In 1542, a new governing body, the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition, was created. Except for the Papal States, church-based inquisition courts were abolished in the early 19th century after the Napoleonic Wars in Europe and independence movements in the Americas. The papal institution continued as part of the Roman Curia, though it changed its name and focus over time, and is now part of the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith.
Legal background
During the high medieval period, some trials were not based on evidence. These included trial by ordeal, such as trial by combat, fire, or water, and compurgation, where people gave character testimony, especially in Germanic cultures. In the 10th and 11th centuries, efforts were made to revive safer parts of Roman and Hebrew law after ancient Roman legal texts were discovered. By the late 10th century, the new University of Bologna taught lawyers about Roman legal principles, and other universities followed. An inquisitorial method, where judges actively investigated cases, was used for crimes punishable by death. This began in religious courts, as required by the Fourth Council of the Lateran in 1215, and later spread to secular courts. Many countries still use inquisitorial legal systems, which differ from adversarial or arbitrated systems.
In the revived legal system, for crimes punishable by death, circumstantial evidence alone was not enough to prove guilt. Instead, the testimony of two or more witnesses was required, which increased the need for confessions. This led to the use of threats and physical punishment, similar to harsh interrogation methods, to obtain information for both religious and secular courts.
Legal experts during the Late Middle Ages created rules about when and how torture could be used, how much force was allowed, what cases it was unsafe for, who could administer it, and what medical oversight was needed. Because torture was part of the investigation phase, it was often not recorded outside of Inquisition proceedings. Historian Henry A. Kelly stated that the Inquisition was "a brilliant and much-needed innovation in trial procedure, instituted by the greatest lawyer-pope of the Middle Ages" and that later "abusive practices" were a corruption of the original inquisitorial process.
Terminology
The word "inquisition" comes from the Medieval Latin term inquisitio, which described a court process based on Roman law. This method was used again during the Late Middle Ages. It replaced older trial methods, such as denunciatio and accussatio, which relied on accusations from others or a system where two sides argued. These older methods included unfair practices like trial by ordeal and trial by combat, which were common in Germanic traditions. Over time, the English word "Inquisition" became used to describe any regional or national courts that worked against people who broke church laws or were accused of heresy. However, the term originally referred to a formal and organized judicial process used in the Middle Ages.
People called "inquisitors" were named for using a method called inquisitio, which means "inquiry" or "inquest." This process was already used by secular rulers, like Henry II of England in the 12th century. In this system, an official would ask people for information about a specific issue.
The term "Inquisition" usually refers to specific courts that dealt with the actions of people who were Catholic or had converted to Catholicism, including those who were forced to convert. These courts were supposed to follow standard procedures, such as informing the accused of the charges, allowing them to have a lawyer, and letting them appeal to the Pope. An inquisitor could only start a case if there was public belief that the accused had a bad reputation, rather than relying on a formal accusation. This was meant to stop unfair charges. However, these inquisitions sometimes allowed lawyers to be absent, protected witness identities, and allowed witnesses with questionable credibility to testify. Once someone was found guilty of heresy, they had no right to a lawyer. Not all inquisitors followed these rules carefully, especially after the late 1300s. Many inquisitors had training in theology, not law.
Scope
In theory, the Inquisition, as a church court, did not have authority over Muslims and Jews. However, there were exceptions, such as the case of the Holy Child of La Guardia. Mostly, the Inquisition focused on the actions of Catholics or people who had converted to Catholicism, even if they had been forced to do so.
Over the past 50 years, the opening of Spanish and Roman archives has led some historians to change their views about the Inquisition. Some now believe earlier ideas were based on "legends and myths." It has also been suggested that certain torture tools, like "the pear of anguish," were not created until the 16th century or later. Some of these changes in understanding may be influenced by historians' personal religious beliefs, the removal of records about crimes committed by the church, or the removal of stories from minorities. Many sources that question the use of torture were written by practicing Catholics. For example, Reverend Brian Van Hove, S.J., argues that the Inquisition is exaggerated in popular stories. He writes:
"…secular historians now often describe how fair the system actually was. They note how many people were released due to technical legal details that protected them from unfair treatment. They also mention how many chances the accused had to avoid further punishment."
This view does not explain that most Inquisition cases resulted in torture, mass excommunications, and public burnings. These actions caused fear and forced people to obey, leaving long-term effects on Europe. Most historical scholars still believe the Inquisition was a tool used by extreme religious leaders to enforce control and eliminate non-Christian beliefs through false accusations and excessive violence.
Sentences
When a person was found guilty of "wilful, unrepentant" heresy, church law required the religious court to send them to civil authorities for final punishment. A civil official, called the "secular arm," would then decide the punishment based on local laws. These laws sometimes included rules against certain religious crimes, and punishments could include death by burning in areas where repeated heresy was treated as a crime against the state. Because of this, inquisitors usually knew what would happen to those they sent to civil authorities. The "secular arm" did not see the trial records of the accused. They only carried out the sentences given to them, and they were required to do so or face charges of heresy and being excommunicated from the church.
The main goal of the trial was supposedly to help the accused person save their soul through persuasion. However, according to the 1578 edition of the Directorium Inquisitorum (a guide for inquisitors), punishments were meant to prevent others from committing similar crimes, not to punish the individual. It stated, "… punishment is not mainly for the person being punished, but for the public good so that others may be frightened and avoid wrongdoing."
Starting in the 19th century, historians have used surviving court records to estimate the number of convictions and executions. They adjusted their calculations based on how many documents were lost over time. Gustav Henningsen and Jaime Contreras studied Spanish Inquisition records, which listed 44,674 cases. Of these, 826 resulted in executions of the person, and 778 involved burning a straw dummy instead. William Monter estimated that 1,000 people were executed in Spain between 1530 and 1630, and 250 between 1630 and 1730. Jean-Pierre Dedieu examined records from Toledo's tribunal, which tried 12,000 people. For the time before 1530, Henry Kamen estimated that about 2,000 people were executed across all Spanish tribunals.
Origin
Before the 12th century, the Catholic Church worked to stop what it considered heresy, often using religious punishment or imprisonment. They rarely used torture or execution. Some church leaders disagreed with executions, even though some countries used the death penalty for heresy. Pope Siricius, Ambrose of Milan, and Martin of Tours opposed the execution of Priscillian, who was seen as a heretic but was killed as a sorcerer. Ambrose refused to recognize Ithacius of Ossonuba because he did not want to support bishops who had sent heretics to death.
In the 12th century, the Church increased efforts to stop the spread of Catharism and other heresies. It assigned groups of bishops and archbishops to create inquisitions, called the Episcopal Inquisition. Pope Lucius III issued the bull Ad Abolendam in 1184, which declared heresy as disrespect toward church authority. The bull Vergentis in Senium in 1199 stated that heresy would be punished as seriously as treason, and the punishment would also affect the descendants of those condemned.
The first Inquisition was briefly set up in Languedoc (southern France) in 1184. The killing of Pope Innocent III’s papal legate, Pierre de Castelnau, by Cathars in 1208 led to the Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229). The Inquisition became permanent in 1229 after the Council of Toulouse, managed mainly by the Dominicans in Rome and later in Carcassonne, Languedoc. In 1252, the Papal Bull Ad extirpanda, following another assassination by Cathars, required the head of state to fund and choose inquisitors from monastic orders. This created conflict by setting up a new court that competed with the Bishop’s courts.
Medieval Inquisitions
Historians use the term "Medieval Inquisition" to describe the inquisitions that began around 1184. These included the Episcopal Inquisitions (1184–1230s) and later the Papal Inquisitions (1230s). These inquisitions were created to deal with groups in Europe who were seen as not following the Christian faith, such as the Cathars in southern France and the Waldensians in southern France and northern Italy. Other inquisitions followed these early ones. The legal basis for some inquisitorial actions came from Pope Innocent IV's papal bull Ad extirpanda in 1252, which allowed inquisitors to use torture in certain cases to get confessions and accusations from people accused of heresy. By 1256, Pope Alexander IV's rescripts Ut negotium allowed certain anti-Cathar inquisitors to forgive each other if blood was accidentally spilled during torture, which was not allowed for priests.
In the 13th century, Pope Gregory IX (reigned 1227–1241) gave the task of carrying out inquisitions to the Dominican Order and the Franciscan Order. By the end of the Middle Ages, England and Castile were the only large western countries without a papal inquisition. Most inquisitors were friars who taught theology and/or law in universities. They used inquisitorial procedures, a legal method borrowed from Ancient Roman court practices. They judged heresy with bishops and groups of "assessors" (clergy who acted like a jury or legal advisers), using local officials to set up courts and prosecute heretics. After 1200, a Grand Inquisitor led but did not control each regional Inquisition. Grand Inquisitions lasted until the mid-19th century.
Only limited records exist for the time before the Roman Inquisition of 1542. In 1276, about 170 Cathars were captured in Sirmione, imprisoned in Verona, and after a two-year trial, more than 100 were burned on 13 February 1278. In Orvieto, by the end of 1268/1269, 85 heretics were sentenced, but none were executed, though 18 had already died. In Tuscany, inquisitor Ruggiero burned at least 11 people in about a year (1244/1245). Between 1260 and 1308, 36 executions were recorded in the March of Treviso. Ten people were executed in Bologna between 1291 and 1310. In Piedmont, 22 Waldensians were burned between 1312 and 1395 out of 213 convicted. In 1440, about 22 Waldensians were burned in Cuneo, and five more were burned in the Marquisate of Saluzzo in 1510.
There are also limited records of executions of people accused of witchcraft in northern Italy during the 15th and early 16th centuries. Wolfgang Behringer estimated that as many as 2,000 people might have been executed. This high number may have been because some inquisitors believed witchcraft was a unique crime, so normal rules for heresy trials did not apply. Many accused witches were executed even after pleading guilty, which under normal rules would have meant only religious punishments, not death. The episcopal inquisition also targeted witches: in 1518, judges appointed by the Bishop of Brescia, Paolo Zane, sent about 70 witches from Val Camonica to be burned.
The Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229), a war declared by the Catholic Church against heresy, mainly Catharism, with many victims (including men, women, and children, some of whom were Catholics), helped prepare the way for later Inquisitions. France has the best-preserved records of medieval inquisitions (13th–14th centuries), though they are still incomplete. Inquisition activity in France varied by time and place. In the first period (1233 to about 1330), the courts in Languedoc (Toulouse, Carcassonne) were the most active. After 1330, the focus of persecution shifted to Alpine regions, while in Languedoc, inquisition activity nearly stopped. In northern France, inquisitor activity was irregular and not very intense during this time.
France's first Dominican inquisitor, Robert le Bougre, who worked from 1233 to 1244, became known for his harsh actions. In 1236, he burned about 50 people in Champagne and Flanders, and on 13 May 1239, he burned 183 Cathars in Montwimer. After Robert was removed from his position, inquisition activity in northern France remained low. One of the largest trials in the area took place in 1459–1460 in Arras, where 34 people were accused of witchcraft and Satanism, and 12 were burned.
The main center of the medieval inquisition was Languedoc. The first inquisitors were appointed there in 1233, but because of strong local resistance, most sentences involved dead heretics, whose bodies were dug up and burned. Actual executions were rare and probably made up less than 1% of all sentences until the fall of the fortress of Montsegur in 1244. In addition to burning the remains of the dead, many sentences were issued to people who were not present, and some heretics who confessed were given religious punishments. For example, in 1241–1242, inquisitor Pierre Ceila helped 724 heretics reconcile with the Church. Inquisitor Ferrier of Catalonia questioned about 800 people in Montauban between 1242 and 1244, sentencing 6 to death and 20 to prison. Between 1243 and 1245, inquisitor Bernard de C
Early modern European history
As debates and conflicts between the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation grew, Protestant societies began to view the Inquisition as a frightening enemy, while devout Catholics saw the Holy Office as essential protection against harmful heresies. From the earliest days of serious heretical groups, such as the Cathars and Waldensians, they were often accused of extreme and untrue actions, like participating in wild sexual gatherings, eating babies, having relationships with demons, or worshiping the Devil.
King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile created the Spanish Inquisition in 1478, managed by 14 local Tribunals. Unlike earlier inquisitions, this one operated directly under royal authority, though staffed by clergy and religious orders, and was independent of the Holy See. It first worked in Spain, then in Portugal, and later in most Spanish colonies and territories, including the Canary Islands, the Kingdom of Sicily, and all Spanish lands in North, Central, and South America. The Inquisition mainly focused on people who had converted from Islam (Moriscos, conversos, and "secret Moors") and from Judaism (conversos, Crypto-Jews, and Marranos)—groups who lived in Spain and were suspected of continuing to follow their old religions.
The Alhambra Decree of 1492 ordered all Jews who had not converted to leave Spain. Tomás de Torquemada was chosen as the first Grand Inquisitor to oversee the Inquisition. It is estimated that up to 2,000 Jews were burned at the stake during Queen Isabella’s reign. All Muslims were required to convert in stages beginning in 1507, and by 1614, those who had previously converted were expelled. Those who converted or stayed after the relevant laws were legally Catholic and subject to the Inquisition.
In 1569, King Philip II of Spain established three tribunals in the Americas (officially named Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición): one in Mexico, one in Cartagena de Indias (now in Colombia), and one in Peru. The Mexican tribunal covered parts of Mexico, Guatemala, and the Spanish East Indies. The Peruvian Inquisition, based in Lima, oversaw Spanish territories in South America and Panama. The Spanish Inquisition officially ended on July 15, 1834, by Maria Cristina de Bourbon, then queen regent of Spain.
The Portuguese Inquisition began in Portugal in 1536 at the request of King João III. Earlier, King Manuel I had asked Pope Leo X to establish the Inquisition in 1515, but it was not approved until after Manuel’s death in 1521 by Pope Paul III. The head of the Inquisition, called the Grande Inquisidor, was named by the Pope but chosen by the Crown and always came from the royal family. Jews who fled Spain and the Spanish Inquisition now faced the same system in Portugal. The Portuguese Inquisition focused mainly on Sephardi Jews, who had escaped or been forced to convert to Christianity. The first public ceremony of punishment, called an auto-da-fé, took place in 1540. The Inquisition targeted Jewish New Christians (conversos or Marranos) and expanded its work to Portugal’s colonies, including Brazil, Cape Verde, and Goa. In the colonies, it operated as a religious court until 1821. King João III (reigned 1521–57) also used the Inquisition to address issues like censorship, witchcraft, and bigamy. According to Henry Charles Lea, between 1540 and 1794, courts in Lisbon, Porto, Coimbra, and Évora resulted in the burning of 1,175 people, the burning of 633 in effigy, and the punishment of 29,590 others. Some records are missing, so these numbers may be incomplete.
The Goa Inquisition began in 1560 under the order of John III of Portugal. It was originally requested in the 1540s by Jesuit priest Francis Xavier, who wanted to address New Christians in Goa who had returned to Judaism. The Goa Inquisition also targeted Catholic converts from Hinduism or Islam who were suspected of reverting to their old faiths. It also prosecuted non-Christians who broke rules against practicing Hindu or Muslim traditions or interfered with Portuguese efforts to convert others to Catholicism. Aleixo Dias Falcão and Francisco Marques established the Inquisition in the palace of the Sabaio Adil Khan.
The Inquisition was active in colonial Brazil. A religious mystic and former enslaved prostitute named Rosa Egipcíaca was arrested, questioned, and imprisoned in both the colony and Lisbon. She was the first Black woman in Brazil to write a book, which described her visions and was titled Sagrada Teologia do Amor Divino das Almas Peregrinas.
With the Protestant Reformation, Catholic leaders became more suspicious of new ideas, including Renaissance humanism, which had once been supported by Church leaders. Removing heresy became a larger and more complex task, complicated by Protestant political power in northern Europe. The Catholic Church could no longer influence politics or justice systems in lands that officially adopted Protestantism. This led to wars (like the French Wars of Religion and the Thirty Years’ War), massacres (such as the St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre), and missionary efforts by the Catholic Counter-Reformation. The Inquisition’s role in addressing heresy declined as other methods, like propaganda and the Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide, became more important. In 1542, Pope Paul III created the Congregation of the Holy Office of the Inquisition, a permanent group of cardinals and officials. This group was responsible for protecting the faith and punishing false beliefs, overseeing local Inquisitions. A famous case handled by the Roman Inquisition was the trial of Galileo Galilei in 1633.
Punishments for those who confessed or were found guilty were announced publicly in a ceremony called the sermo generalis or auto-da-fé. Penalties might include pilgrimages, public beatings, fines, or wearing a cross. Those under investigation wore red or brightly colored cloth in an "X" shape on their clothing. In serious cases, the Inquisition could take property or imprison people. This led to false accusations being used to seize property from wealthy individuals, especially Marranos. After the French invasion of 1798, 3,000 boxes containing over 100,000 Inquisition documents were sent to France from Rome.
Between 1657 and 1659, twenty-two people accused of witchcraft were burned by the inquisitor Pierre Symard in the province of Franc.
Manuals for Inquisitors
Over many years, several guides were created to help inquisitors handle different kinds of heresy. The earliest guide was Pope Innocent IV's bull, Ad Extirpanda, from 1252. This document had thirty-eight rules that explained what inquisitors should do. It also allowed the use of non-violent, non-harmful torture to support certain evidence. Later, other guides were written, including Nicholas Eymerich's Directorium Inquisitorum in 1376 and Bernardo Gui's Practica inquisitionis heretice pravitatis between 1319 and 1323. Witches were also addressed in a book called Malleus Maleficarum ("the witches' hammer"), written in 1486 by former inquisitor Heinrich Kramer.
In Portugal, four "Regimentos" (regulations) were created for inquisitors. The first was written in 1552 by Cardinal D. Henrique, and the last in 1774 by the Marquis of Pombal, who supported the Inquisition. The Portuguese 1640 Regulation required each court of the Holy Office to have a Bible, a summary of religious and civil laws, Eymerich's Directorium Inquisitorum, and Diego de Simancas's Catholicis institutionibus. In 1484, Spanish inquisitor Torquemada wrote his 28-article code, Compilación de las instrucciones del oficio de la Santa Inquisición, based on Eymerich's Directorium Inquisitorum. Later updates were added, often based on experience, by canonist Francisco Peña.
Heinrich Kramer was a Dominican priest who worked as an assistant to the Archbishop of Salzburg. He was known as a powerful preacher and was appointed as a local inquisitor. Historian Malcolm Gaskill described Kramer as a "superstitious psychopath." In 1484, Kramer asked Pope Innocent VIII to clarify his authority to investigate witchcraft in Germany, where local church leaders refused to help him. They said Kramer could not legally work in their areas. Although Pope Innocent VIII gave some support, Kramer was forced to leave Innsbruck by the local bishop, George Golzer, who ordered him to stop making false accusations.
Golzer called Kramer "senile" in letters after the incident. This criticism led Kramer to write Malleus Maleficarum in 1486. The book is different from other writings on demons because of its extreme dislike for women and sex, which some believe shows the author's troubled mind. Historian Brian Levack called the book "scholastic pornography." Although Kramer claimed the book was accepted by clergy at the University of Cologne, the clergy there actually condemned it for promoting ideas that went against Catholic teachings and standard Inquisition procedures. In 1538, the Spanish Inquisition warned its members not to believe everything in the Malleus. Despite this, Kramer was never excommunicated and remained respected until his death.
Inquisition Proceedings
The usual process started with inquisitors visiting a selected place. People accused of heresy were asked to appear and confess their own sins and those of others. Simply admitting one’s own guilt was not enough. Many people confessed to false crimes out of fear that friends or neighbors might do the same. The fear caused by the Inquisition led to many people reporting even family members, friends, or neighbors. If someone confessed during a "grace period"—usually 30 days—they could return to the church without punishment. The "edicts of grace" offered forgiveness for the death penalty, life imprisonment, or the loss of property to those who confessed on their own.
Anyone suspected of knowing about a heresy and who failed to report it would be excommunicated (excluded from the church) and later charged with "promoting heresy." If a person accused others, those accused were also summoned. The Inquisition accepted all complaints, no matter the person’s status or reputation. Rumors, guesses, or anonymous letters were considered valid if they seemed relevant to religious matters. Even prison guards could report on accused individuals.
This system made everyone act as an agent of the Inquisition, reminding people that even small actions could lead to being investigated. Reporting others was seen as a religious duty, creating suspicion among neighbors, family, and strangers. Rules about evidence existed, though they were not always followed. For example, enemies could not testify against the accused, and more than one witness was needed. Torture (used in secular courts) could only be used to confirm uncertain testimony.
The main form of torture was psychological, such as being kept alone or held in prison for long periods. The actual use of torture is debated. Some say it was used only in extreme cases, but different regions and times had varied practices. Historian Ron E. Hassner noted that inquisitors often relied on gathering information from multiple sources rather than forcing confessions. Torture was used only occasionally, sometimes months apart. Their goal was to confirm existing information, not to force a confession.
A summary of the Directorium Inquisitorum by Nicolás Aymerich, written by Marchena, quotes an Aragonese inquisitor: "Interrogations are misleading and useless." Despite this, Aymerich strongly supported torture and detailed rules for its use. Those found guilty had their property taken to pay for legal costs and to fund the Inquisition. Victims could also repent and be reconciled with the Church. During torture, the inquisitor, doctor, secretary, and torturer were present. The bull Ad extirpanda from 1252 allowed torture but required a doctor to be present and limited it to non-lethal methods that did not break bones.
According to Catholic apologists, torture was used only in rare cases and was strictly regulated. After trials, many victims were in poor health, and some died. Despite the loss of many records, some detailed accounts of torture sessions remain.
Some historians argue that torture was rarely used because it was ineffective. Before torture, inquisitors sometimes showed instruments to intimidate the accused into confessing. If the accused wanted to avoid punishment, they were encouraged to admit their faults.
Historian Helen Mary Carrel stated that the idea of medieval justice being cruel and based on torture is often unfair. Nigel Townson wrote that the "torture chambers" with cruel devices were imagined by critics, not real.
It seems likely that inquisitors preferred simple, less damaging methods. Aymerich noted that canon law did not specify particular tortures, allowing judges to choose methods as long as they were not unusual. Some torture devices were likely invented by executioners, not theologians. Rafael Sabatini noted that records do not mention these extreme inventions, suggesting inquisitors used existing tools.
Many torture devices were created by 18th- and 19th-century entertainers to profit from public interest in the Dark Ages. However, some devices are described in Foxe's Book of Martyrs, such as the dry pan. Instruments falsely attributed to the Inquisition are displayed in some museums.
Trials by the Inquisition were secret, and decisions could not be appealed. Defendants were pressured to confess to assigned crimes. Inquisitors kept accusations and evidence hidden to force confessions without revealing charges. The goal was to make the accused admit guilt. Lawyers assigned to cases worked for the Inquisition, not the accused. Each court had its own staff, including lawyers, prosecutors, and notaries. Guards monitored prisoners; for example, refusing to eat might be seen as a Jewish practice.
False accusations were common against New Christians, making it hard to prove innocence. Many chose to falsely confess, naming imaginary accomplices, to avoid severe punishments like death. There were no modern-style trials, only interrogations. Prisoners were rarely given legal representation.
Legitimation by the texts
The Inquisition used Bible verses and teachings from Church leaders, such as Augustine of Hippo, to support its actions. The New Testament includes statements that the church used to address people who did not follow its teachings. Being excommunicated, or removed from the church, was seen as giving someone over to the Devil. A Bible verse from Paul’s letters (1 Corinthians, chapter 5, verses 4 and 5) says, “Hand this person over to Satan for destruction of the flesh, so that their spirit may be saved on the day of the Lord.” Another verse from Paul’s letters to Timothy (1 Timothy, chapter 1, verses 19 and 20) suggests that people who lost their faith should be separated from the church to avoid spreading harmful ideas. Paul’s teachings focused more on isolating people who caused problems rather than punishing them, as he wrote in a letter to Titus (Titus, chapter 3, verses 10 and 11): “Do not associate with someone who causes arguments, for they may be corrupt and self-condemned.”
In the Gospel of John, Jesus told a story about a vine and its branches. He said, “I am the vine, you are the branches. If you remain in me, you will bear fruit. If not, you will be thrown away and burned.” This story was sometimes used to justify punishing people who refused to follow church teachings (John, chapter 15, verses 5 and 6).
Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), a well-known theologian, explained in his work Summa theologica that a person who repents of heresy should be allowed to change their behavior and remain safe from punishment by secular leaders. However, if someone repeated their heresy, they could be excommunicated and handed over to secular authorities, who might impose the death penalty. He wrote, “Accepting faith is a choice, but keeping faith is a duty. Heretics must be forced to stay faithful.”
Luis de Páramo, a theologian and Inquisitor in Sicily from 1584 to 1605, claimed that Jesus Christ was the first Inquisitor under Christian law, and that John the Baptist and the apostles also acted as inquisitors. However, some religious thinkers, like Erasmus, believed that a Bible story about wheat and weeds (the Parable of the Wheat and Tares) warned against punishing heretics too quickly. Saint Augustine (354–430) debated with the Donatist group, who had separated from the Roman Church. He supported using secular power to correct heretics, including the death penalty, but he did not believe it was ideal. He wrote, “We want to improve them, not kill them. We want church discipline to succeed, not the punishments they deserve.”
Opposition and resistance
In many places and times, people opposed the Inquisition. Some individuals who were accused of heresy or other crimes tried to harm inquisitors or destroy their important records because they feared losing their freedom, property, or lives. For example, in 1233, the Inquisitor Konrad von Marburg was killed by six men on a road near Marburg. In 1242, a group of Cathars attacked the castle in Avignonet, France, and killed two inquisitors, Guillaume Arnaud and Étienne de Saint-Thibéry. In 1252, Peter of Verona, an inquisitor, was killed by Cathars. He was later declared a Catholic saint in 11 months, the fastest canonization in history. As Christine Caldwell Ames wrote, "The Inquisition changed how people saw martyrdom, holiness, and following Christ's example." In 1395, an assassination attempt failed against inquisitor Petrus Zwicker in Steyr, Austria, when someone tried to set his location on fire.
Opposition to the Inquisition sometimes came from within the clergy, including priests, friars, and bishops. During the French Inquisition, a Franciscan friar named Bernard Délicieux criticized the Inquisition in Languedoc. He claimed the Inquisition unfairly targeted innocent Catholics and would have condemned even Peter and Paul as heretics if they were investigated. Bernard Gui, a famous inquisitor, accused Délicieux of leading an "iniquitous army" against the Dominicans and the Inquisition. Délicieux was later arrested, questioned, and tortured by the Inquisition. In 1319, he was sentenced to life in prison and died shortly after.
In Spain, some bishops challenged the Inquisition. In 1532, Archbishop Alonso III Fonseca had to pay to free Juan de Vergara, a converso, from inquisitors. Fonseca had previously helped rescue Ignatius of Loyola from the Inquisition. The Inquisition was not always unified, and sometimes it targeted individuals protected by the Inquisitor-General, such as Alonso Manrique de Lara and Erasmus.
In Portugal, Father António Vieira, a Jesuit, philosopher, and writer, opposed the Inquisition. In 1665, he was arrested by the Inquisition for "heretical, reckless, ill-sounding, and scandalous propositions" and was imprisoned until 1667. He was forbidden from teaching, writing, or preaching. His influence and support from the royal family likely saved him from harsher punishment. Vieira led an anti-Inquisition movement in Rome, where he lived for six years. He also criticized the Inquisition for harming a growing middle class that could help Portugal's economy. He is believed to have written a secret document, Notícias Recônditas do Modo de Proceder da Inquisição de Portugal com os seus Presos, which exposed the Inquisition's practices. This document was given to Pope Clement X, who suspended the Inquisition in Portugal between 1674 and 1681.
Ending of the Inquisition in the 19th and 20th centuries
In 1797, Napoleon's government ordered the end of the Inquisition in Venice, which happened in 1806. In Portugal, after the Liberal Revolution of 1820, the "General Extraordinary and Constituent Courts of the Portuguese Nation" abolished the Portuguese Inquisition in 1821. The wars for independence in the Americas ended the Inquisition in all parts of Hispanic America between 1813 and 1825. The last execution by the Inquisition in Spain was in 1826. A teacher named Gaietà Ripoll was put to death by garroting for teaching Deism. In Spain, the practices of the Inquisition were finally outlawed in 1834.
In Italy, the Pope was restored as ruler of the Papal States in 1814, bringing the Inquisition back to the region. It remained active until the late 1800s, including the Mortara affair from 1858 to 1870. In 1542, the Vatican created a governing body called the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition. This group still exists today as part of the Roman Curia, though it has changed names over time. In 1908, it became the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office. In 1965, it was renamed the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. In 2022, it was called the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith, and that name is still used today.
Current position of the Catholic Church
Reflection on the actions taken by the Catholic Church's inquisitors began during the time leading up to the Great Jubilee of 2000. Pope John Paul II started this process, asking the Church to admit fault for "examples of thought and action that caused harm or bad examples." On March 12, 2000, during the Jubilee celebration, the Pope apologized on behalf of the entire Catholic Church and all Christians for these actions and many others. He asked for forgiveness for seven types of sins: general sins; sins "in the service of truth"; sins that harmed Christian unity; sins against the Jewish people; sins that showed disrespect for love, peace, and cultures; sins that harmed the dignity of women and minorities; and sins against human rights. Some theologians believed this apology might weaken the Church's authority. Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, who represented the office that followed the Roman Inquisition, apologized, saying, "Even church members, in the name of faith and morals, sometimes used methods that did not match the Gospel."
Critics, including some Jewish leaders, thought John Paul II's apology was not complete. They pointed out that at the same time, the Church honored Pope Pius IX, who was known for his anti-Jewish views and for approving the forced removal of Edgardo Mortara, a six-year-old Jewish boy taken from his family by police in the Papal States under orders from the Inquisitor of Bologna. The boy was later raised in the papal household. Some inquisitors are considered saints by the Catholic Church, such as Peter of Verona, Pedro de Arbués, and John of Capistrano. Others, like Michele Ghislieri (later Pope Pius V) and Jacques Fournier (later Pope Benedict XII), were Popes. Raymond of Penyafort, who wrote one of the earliest manuals for inquisitors called the Directorium inquisitoriale (1242), is also a Catholic saint.