Insular art, also called Hiberno-Saxon art, was created in Great Britain and Ireland after the Roman Empire ended in those areas. The name comes from the Latin word "insula," which means "island." During this time, Britain and Ireland shared a similar style of art that was different from the rest of Europe. Art experts often group Insular art with the Migration Period art movement and Early Medieval Western art. The mix of these two traditions creates the unique look of Insular art.
Most Insular art comes from the Irish monastic movement of Celtic Christianity or from metalwork made for wealthy people. This period began around 600 when Celtic and Anglo-Saxon styles were combined. A major feature of Insular art is interlace decoration, such as the patterns found at Sutton Hoo in East Anglia. These designs were used to decorate new types of objects, especially books called codices.
The best period of Insular art ended because of the Viking raids that started in the late 8th century. These raids disrupted monasteries and the lives of wealthy people, possibly stopping work on the Book of Kells. No later Gospel books were as beautifully decorated as those from the 8th century. In England, Insular art blended into Anglo-Saxon art by 900. In Ireland, the style lasted until the 12th century, when it merged with Romanesque art. Important centers of Insular art included Ireland, Scotland, and the kingdom of Northumbria in northern England. Examples were also found in southern England, Wales, and parts of Europe, especially in Gaul (modern-day France), where monasteries were founded by Hiberno-Scottish and Anglo-Saxon missions. The influence of Insular art shaped later European medieval art, especially the decorative elements in Romanesque and Gothic manuscripts.
Examples of Insular art that survive today include illuminated manuscripts, metalwork, and carved stone, especially stone crosses. These artworks are highly decorated with complex patterns, but they do not show depth, volume, or distance. Famous examples include the Book of Kells, Lindisfarne Gospels, Book of Durrow, brooches like the Tara Brooch, and the Ruthwell Cross. Carpet pages, which are pages filled with intricate patterns, are a common feature in Insular manuscripts. Other common elements include historiated initials (a style invented by Insular artists), canon tables, and pictures of religious figures, such as Evangelist portraits.
Designation
The term "Insular," meaning related to islands, comes from the phrase "Insular script," first mentioned by the Oxford English Dictionary in 1908. Evidence suggests this usage was already common before that year, with some sources pointing to 1901 as the first recorded use. Linguists also use "Insular" to describe the Insular Celtic languages. Originally, the term described the decorative style of illuminated manuscripts, which are the most common surviving examples of this style. Over time, the term has been applied more broadly to all types of art and to groups of people, such as the "Insular Celts." This term helps highlight shared artistic styles across Britain and Ireland while avoiding the phrase "British Isles," which can be a sensitive topic in Ireland. It also avoids debates about where the style originated or where specific works were created, which were common in the 20th century and may be returning in the 21st century.
Some sources divide the Insular style into two periods: a longer time from the 5th to the 11th centuries, covering the end of Roman rule to the start of the Romanesque style, and a shorter time from the 6th to the 9th centuries, focusing on the spread of Christianity and the arrival of Vikings. However, C. R. Dodwell notes that in Ireland, the Insular style remained dominant until the Anglo-Norman invasion in 1170. Examples of this style were still being made as late as the 13th and 14th centuries.
Insular decoration
The Insular style is well known for its complex, detailed, and creative decoration, which includes elements from earlier art styles. Late Iron Age Celtic art, called "Ultimate La Tène," inspired the use of spirals, triskeles, circles, and other geometric designs. These were combined with animal shapes, mostly from the Germanic version of the Eurasian animal style, though also from Celtic art, where scroll-like endings on animal heads were common. Interlace, a technique used in both these traditions, as well as in Roman art (such as floor mosaics) and other influences like Coptic art, was used in new and more advanced ways in Insular art, where it was joined with the other elements already mentioned.
In manuscript painting, there is no effort to show depth. Instead, the focus is on a brightly patterned surface. In early works, human figures were shown in the same geometric style as animal figures, but over time, influences from classical styles, mostly from southern Anglo-Saxon areas, became more common. Northern regions also had direct connections with the Continent. The overall design of the carpet page is often linked to Roman floor mosaics, Coptic carpets, and manuscript paintings, though scholars have not reached a clear agreement on its exact origins.
Background
Insular art is different from Byzantine art and other major art periods because it did not develop in a society where common artistic styles were used across many types of objects, including art, applied art, and decorative art. At that time, the islands were mostly rural, with simple buildings and no single style of architecture. Although many objects made from materials that do not last long, such as wood or fabric, likely existed, they have not survived. Religious and secular leaders of the time expected individual objects to be highly skilled and impressive, especially because the surrounding environment had little visual complexity.
In Ireland, religious and secular leaders were often closely connected, with some monasteries being controlled by the same families for many years. Ireland was divided into many small "kingdoms," too many for historians to easily track, while Britain had fewer, larger kingdoms. Both the Celtic (Irish and Pictish) and Anglo-Saxon elites had long traditions of creating high-quality metalwork, often used for personal decoration by both men and women of the elite. The Insular style developed from the blending of Celtic and Anglo-Saxon artistic styles, influenced by Christianity and some elements of Late Antique style. This was especially true when applied to books, which were new objects for both traditions, and to metalwork.
The Kingdom of Northumbria played a key role in forming this new style. As the northernmost Anglo-Saxon kingdom, it expanded into areas with Celtic populations but often left those groups largely unchanged in places like Dál Riata, Elmet, and the Kingdom of Strathclyde. The Irish monastery at Iona was founded by Saint Columba in 563, when Iona was part of Dál Riata, which included land in both Ireland and modern Scotland. Although the first conversion of a Northumbrian king, Edwin in 627, was led by clergy from the Gregorian Mission in Kent, Celtic Christianity from Iona initially had more influence in Northumbria. This led to the founding of Lindisfarne in 635 as a satellite monastery. However, Northumbria remained connected to Rome, and important monastic centers were later established by Wilfrid and Benedict Biscop, who followed Roman practices. At the Synod of Whitby, Roman practices were supported, while the Iona group left and did not adopt the Roman Easter dating until 715.
The general agreement about the origins of the Insular style may be challenged by new discoveries, such as the large number of decorated metal items found in the Staffordshire Hoard in 2009, and to a lesser extent, the Prittlewell princely burial in Essex, found in 2003.
Metalwork
Christianity did not allow people to bury items with the dead, so from the Anglo-Saxon period, more pre-Christian items survived than those from later times. Most surviving items from the Christian period were found in places that suggest they were hidden, lost, or abandoned quickly. A few exceptions exist, such as arm-shaped containers for holy items, like the Shrine of Saint Lachtin's Arm, and portable book-shaped or house-shaped shrines for books or relics. These were mostly owned by churches on the Continent, though the Monymusk Reliquary has always been in Scotland.
In general, most surviving items were found by chance, and only parts of some types of objects remain, especially the largest and least portable ones. The highest quality surviving items are either secular jewelry, likely for men, or tableware and altarware that look very similar. Some pieces cannot be clearly identified as belonging to an altar or a royal dining table. It is likely that the finest church items were made by secular workshops, often connected to royal households, while others were made by monastic workshops. Evidence suggests that Irish metalworkers created most of the best pieces, but items from the royal burial at Sutton Hoo, in eastern England, are equally fine in design and craftsmanship. Even without considering later medieval workshops, craftsmen may not have always designed the entire work. For example, parts of the Ardagh Chalice show less skill than the rest of the piece.
Many large penannular brooches, similar in quality to the Tara brooch, survive. These are mostly in major museums like the British Museum, the National Museum of Ireland, or local museums. Each brooch has a unique design, and the craftsmanship varies in technique but is of high quality. Many design elements match those in manuscripts. Most decorative stones used are semi-precious, such as amber and rock crystal, with some garnets. Colored glass, enamel, and millefiori glass, likely imported, are also used, as seen in the Ballinderry Brooch from the late 6th century.
The Rinnegan Crucifixion Plaque, made of gilded bronze and dating to the late 7th or early 8th century, is the best-known of nine Irish Crucifixion plaques. It resembles figures on high crosses and may have come from a book cover or been part of a larger altar or cross.
The Ardagh Chalice and the Derrynaflan Hoard, which includes a chalice, paten with stand, strainer, and basin (discovered in 1980), are the most important surviving church metal items. These date to the 8th or 9th century, though dating is uncertain and often based on comparisons with manuscripts. Fragments remain from what were likely large church furnishings, such as shrines or crosses, made with metal on wooden frames. Insular croziers, with a distinctive shape, survived in later periods, such as the Kells and Lismore Croziers, which are Irish or Scottish. These later works, including the 11th-century River Laune and Clonmacnoise Croziers, show Viking influences with interlace patterns in Ringerike or Urnes styles.
The Cross of Cong, a 12th-century Irish processional cross and reliquary, features Insular decoration, possibly added intentionally to revive earlier styles.
It is difficult to imagine the fittings of major abbey churches from the Insular period. However, it is clear that the most elaborately decorated manuscripts were treated as decorative objects for display, not for study. The Book of Kells, the most decorated, has uncorrected mistakes and missing text needed for Canon tables. When it was stolen in 1006 for its metal cover, it was taken from the sacristy, not the library. The cover was not recovered, as happened with the Book of Lindisfarne. None of the major Insular manuscripts have preserved their original jeweled covers, but documents suggest they were as impressive as continental examples. The Lindau Gospels' metal cover, now in the Morgan Library in New York, was made in southern Germany in the late 8th or early 9th century under Insular influence. It may resemble the original covers of great Insular manuscripts. The Lindau cover is dominated by a cross, with interlace patterns and cloisonné enamel showing Italian influence. Though not found in Insular homelands, the overall design resembles a carpet page.
Illuminated manuscripts
The Cathach of St. Columba is an Irish Latin psalter from the early 7th century. It is possibly the oldest known Irish manuscript of any kind. It contains only decorated letters at the beginning of each Psalm. These letters already show unique features. Not only the first letter, but the first few letters are decorated, with each letter getting smaller. The decoration changes the shape of the letters, and different decorative styles are mixed in a way that is not typical. Lines are curved into spirals, as seen in examples. In addition to black ink, some orange ink is used for dotted patterns. The use of large letters for initials was uncommon in classical traditions, where words were often hard to separate. At this time, large letters were common in Italy but were often placed in the left margin, as if separated from the rest of the text. The Insular style, which had decoration that spread into the text, was a major innovation. The Bobbio Jerome, dated before 622 and from Bobbio Abbey in northern Italy, has more detailed initials with color, showing more developed Insular features. From the same scriptorium and similar time, the Bobbio Orosius has the earliest carpet page, though it is simple.
The Durham Gospel Book Fragment is the earliest surviving painted Insular manuscript, created in Lindisfarne around 650. Only seven leaves remain, not all with illuminations. It introduces interlace patterns and uses Celtic designs from metalwork. Two surviving pages are connected as a two-page spread.
The Book of Durrow is the earliest surviving Gospel Book with full decoration (though not all has survived). It includes six carpet pages, a full-page image of the four evangelists’ symbols, four full-page miniatures of the symbols, four pages with large initials, and decorated text on other pages. Many smaller initials are also decorated. Its date and origin are debated, with possible dates between 650–690 and locations in Ireland, Iona, or Lindisfarne. The decoration’s influences are also controversial, especially regarding Coptic or other Near Eastern styles.
The manuscript uses cross motifs, ribbon interlace, lattice work, carpet pages, and evangelist symbols. After large initials, the following letters on the same line, or for some lines beyond, are also decorated but smaller. Dots around large initials are often used. The figures are highly stylized, with some pages using Germanic animal patterns and others using Celtic geometric spirals. Each page has a unique set of decorative motifs. Only four colors are used, but the viewer does not notice any limitations. All elements of Insular style are already present. The execution is high quality but not as refined as in later books, and the details are not as small.
The Lindisfarne Gospels were made in Lindisfarne by Eadfrith, Bishop of Lindisfarne, between about 690 and his death in 721. It follows the style of the Book of Durrow but is more elaborate. All letters at the start of the Gospels are highly decorated in a single composition. Many two-page openings are designed as a unit, with carpet pages facing an initial page at the start of each Gospel. Eadfrith was likely both the scribe and artist. There are four Evangelist portraits, clearly inspired by classical traditions but without depth. The borders around the portraits are simpler than the text pages, showing two distinct styles that Eadfrith did not fully combine. The carpet pages are very complex and beautifully made.
The Lichfield Gospels were likely made in Lichfield around 730. This deluxe Gospel Book includes eight decorated pages, such as a cross-carpet page and portraits of Evangelists Mark and Luke. Parts of the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke survive. Pages from its time in Wales include early examples of Old Welsh writing. The manuscript has been in Lichfield Cathedral since the late 10th century, except for a short time during the English Civil War.
The St. Petersburg Bede was created at Monkwearmouth-Jarrow Abbey in Northumbria between about 730–746. It features large opening letters with metalwork-style decoration. Thin bands of interlace are found within the letters. It also includes the earliest historiated initial, a bust likely of Pope Gregory I, which clearly comes from a Mediterranean model. Color is used, but in a limited way.
The Book of Kells is usually dated to around 800, though sometimes earlier. Its origin is debated between Iona, Kells, or other locations. It is often thought to have started in Iona and continued in Ireland after Viking raids disrupted work. The book is nearly intact, but the decoration is not finished, with some parts only outlined. It is more decorated than any previous manuscript, with many small decorated letters on nearly every page. Only one carpet page exists, but the incipit initials are so densely decorated that they serve a similar function. Human figures appear more frequently than before, though they are highly stylized and surrounded by crowded decoration. Books are the most clearly depicted objects in the illustrations. Scenes like the Temptation and Arrest of Christ, as well as a Madonna and Child surrounded by angels (the earliest Western Madonna in a book), are included. More miniatures may have been planned or lost. Colors are bright, and the decoration is full of energy, with spiral forms common. Gold and silver are not used. The Book of Kells is held in Trinity College Dublin.
A less well-known Insular manuscript in Trinity College Dublin’s library is the Garland of Howth, which is damaged. Only two illuminated pages remain, decorated with common Insular motifs.
A distinct type of Insular book is the pocket Gospel Book, which is less decorated but sometimes includes Evangelist portraits and other decorations. Examples include the Book of Mulling, Book of Deer, Book of Dimma, Book of Armagh, and the smallest, the Stonyhurst Gospel (now in the British Library), a 7th-century Anglo-Saxon text of the Gospel of John belonging to St. Cuthbert and buried with him. Its beautifully tooled goatskin cover is the oldest surviving Western bookbinding and a rare example of Insular leatherwork.
Both Anglo-Saxon and Irish manuscripts have a rougher finish on their vellum compared to the smooth, polished vellum of contemporary continental and late-medieval manuscripts. It seems that scribes who copied the
Sculpture
Large stone high crosses, often placed outside monasteries or churches, first appeared in Ireland during the 8th century. These may have been built at Carndonagh in Donegal, a monastic site with connections to ancient Greek-style designs. These Irish crosses came later than some of the earliest Anglo-Saxon crosses, which might date back to the 7th century.
Later carvings found across Britain and Ireland were mostly geometric patterns, similar to the designs on the earliest crosses. By the 9th century, figures began to appear on crosses, and the largest ones had many scenes carved on all sides. These scenes often showed stories from the Old Testament on the east side and the New Testament on the west side, with a Crucifixion image at the center of the cross. The Muiredach's High Cross at Monasterboice, built in the 10th century, is usually considered the finest example of Irish crosses. In later examples, the number of figures decreased, and they became larger in size. Their style also started to resemble the Romanesque style, as seen in the Dysert Cross in Ireland.
The 8th-century Northumbrian Ruthwell Cross, which was damaged by people who opposed religious images, is the most impressive surviving Anglo-Saxon cross. However, like most Anglo-Saxon crosses, its original top part is missing. Many Anglo-Saxon crosses were smaller and thinner than Irish ones, so they only had space for carved plant designs. However, some crosses, like the Bewcastle Cross, Easby Cross, and Sandbach Crosses, had large areas with detailed images of people. These images were larger than those on early Irish crosses. Even early Anglo-Saxon crosses combined plant-like patterns from Europe with interwoven designs. Over time, the plant-like patterns became more common, just as they did in written manuscripts. Literary records suggest that many carved stone crosses existed across England, including straight pillars used as grave markers. Most surviving examples are found in the northernmost regions of England. Other examples of large stone carvings from the Anglo-Saxon period exist, but no similar works have been found in Ireland.
Pictish standing stones
The stone monuments built by the Picts of Scotland north of the Clyde-Forth line between the 6th and 8th centuries are impressive in design and construction. They are carved in the typical Easter Ross style, which is similar to Insular art, though with less influence from classical art. The animal shapes on these stones are often similar to those in Insular manuscripts, where they usually represent the symbols of the Evangelists. This may suggest that the Picts created these designs or that both the Picts and the Insular artists shared a common source. The carvings come from both pagan and early Christian times. The Pictish symbols, which are still not fully understood, were not seen as offensive by Christians. The purpose and meaning of the stones are only partly known. Some believe they were personal memorials, with symbols showing clan, lineage, or family connections and depicting ancient ceremonies and rituals. Examples include the Eassie Stone and the Hilton of Cadboll Stone. It is possible that the stones also marked tribal or family lands. Some scholars suggest the symbols might have been a system of writing using pictures.
There are also a few examples of similar designs on Pictish silver jewelry, such as the Norrie's Law Hoard from the 7th century or earlier, much of which was melted down when found, and the 8th-century St Ninian's Isle Hoard, which includes many brooches and bowls. The surviving items from both hoards are now kept in the National Museum of Scotland.
Legacy
The true legacy of Insular art is not found in its specific decorative styles, but in its different approach to decoration compared to classical art, whether in books or other artworks. The lively, flowing energy of Insular decoration, which moves across structured areas, influenced later medieval art, especially Gothic art, even in areas where Insular designs were rarely used, such as architecture. The combination of images and decorative patterns remained a key feature of medieval illuminated manuscripts. In fact, the complexity and richness of this mix in Insular manuscripts are only matched by some 15th-century Flemish illuminated works. It is also clear that these features were more common in northern Europe than in southern Europe; even during the Gothic period, Italian art always kept a clear, classical style in its forms.
Clear influence from Insular art can be seen in Carolingian manuscripts, even though these works also tried to copy the styles of Rome and Byzantium. Large, sometimes decorated initials were kept, along with more abstract decoration than found in classical art. These features continued in Ottonian and French artworks from the same time, before the Romanesque period reduced classical influences further, especially in manuscripts and column capitals.