Manichaeism was a major world religion started in the third century AD by a prophet named Mani in the Sasanian Empire. It taught that the world was made up of two opposing forces: a good spiritual world of light and an evil material world of darkness. Over time, light was believed to be slowly taken away from the material world and returned to the spiritual world.

Mani wanted to combine, improve, and complete the teachings of earlier religions, such as those from Ancient Babylon, Greece, Rome, Iran, India, and Christianity. Most followers of Manichaeism believed Mani was the last great prophet, following important figures like Zoroaster, the Buddha, and Jesus. The religion had seven main writings originally in Syriac, and Mani was said to have created a book of pictures. Religious practices included prayer, giving to others, fasting, and daily meals for the most devoted followers. Communities focused on confessing sins and singing hymns.

Manichaeism spread quickly across Aramaic-speaking areas, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East. It was widespread from the third to seventh centuries AD and was one of the most common religions in the world at its peak. Manichaean churches and writings were found as far east as China and as far west as Roman Iberia. Before Islam spread, Manichaeism was a major competitor to early Christianity. However, it faced strong opposition from the Roman government and the growing Christian church, and it largely disappeared from Roman lands by the end of the sixth century.

Manichaeism continued to survive in the East. It remained in West Asia until the Abbasid rulers banned it in the 10th century. Missionaries and trade brought Manichaeism to China during the Tang Dynasty, where it adapted to local traditions. It was the official religion of the Uyghur Khaganate until 830, but the Tang Dynasty later banned it. It briefly returned during the Mongol Yuan Dynasty in the 13th and 14th centuries. Over time, Chinese rulers persecuted Manichaeism, and it was absorbed into Buddhism and Taoism by the end of the 14th century.

Some Manichaean sites still exist in China, like the Cao'an Temple in Jinjiang, Fujian. The religion may have influenced later groups in Europe, such as the Paulicians, Bogomils, and Cathars. Although most original writings were lost, many translated and partial texts remain.

Terminology

The spelling "Manichaeism" is a common mistake that came from the correct spelling "Manichaism." This word comes from the ancient Greek word Μανιχαϊσμός (Manikhaïsmós), which was later used in Latin as "Manichaismus." The Greek word is based on Μανιχαῖος (Manikhaîos), which means "Manichaeus," one of the names used for Mani in Greek writings.

In English, someone who follows Manichaeism is called a Manichaean, Manichean, or Manichee.

History

Mani was an Iranian born in 216 AD in or near Ctesiphon (now al-Mada'in, Iraq) in the Parthian Empire. According to the Cologne Mani-Codex, Mani's parents were members of the Jewish Christian Gnostic sect known as the Elcesaites.

Mani wrote seven works. Six were written in the late-Aramaic Syriac language. The seventh, called the Shabuhragan, was written in Middle Persian and given to the Sasanian emperor Shapur I by Mani himself. Although there is no evidence that Shapur I followed Mani, he allowed the spread of Manichaeism and did not punish its followers within his empire.

According to Michel Tardieu, Mani created a unique version of the Syriac script called the Manichaean alphabet. This alphabet was used in all Manichaean works written in the Sasanian Empire, whether in Syriac or Middle Persian, as well as in most works written in the Uyghur Khaganate. The main language of Babylonia—and the administrative and cultural language of the Empire—at that time was Eastern Middle Aramaic, which had three main dialects: Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, the language of the Babylonian Talmud; Mandaic, the language of Mandaeism; and Syriac, the language of Mani and the Syriac Christians.

During the spread of Manichaeism, established religions like Zoroastrianism remained popular, while early Christianity gained both social and political influence. Despite having fewer followers, Manichaeism attracted the support of several high-ranking political figures. With the backing of the Sasanian Empire, Mani traveled to spread his teachings. However, after failing to gain favor with the next generation of Persian royalty and facing disapproval from the Zoroast

Teachings and beliefs

Mani's teachings explained the origin of evil by suggesting that God is not all-powerful and that two opposing divine forces exist. Manichaeism teaches that good and evil are two separate powers. A key belief is that the good power (God) is strong but not all-powerful and is opposed by the eternal evil power (the devil). Humans, the world, and souls are seen as results of the struggle between God's representative, called Primal Man, and the devil.

Each person is viewed as a place where these two forces fight. The soul, which defines a person, is influenced by both light (good) and darkness (evil). This struggle happens everywhere, and the human body is not seen as evil. Instead, it has both light and dark parts. Natural events, like rain, are seen as physical signs of this spiritual battle. Manichaeism explains evil by saying that the world was created imperfectly, and God did not create it. Instead, the devil caused this flawed creation in his fight against God.

Manichaeism describes a conflict between the spiritual world of light and the material world of darkness. Both worlds have beings with names. Many sources, including writings by Theodore bar Konai and parts of Mani's Shabuhragan, help explain Manichaean beliefs. These writings, along with others like the Acta Archelai and writings by Augustine, helped scholars like Jonas Hans create a description of the Manichaean view of the universe.

The Manichaean universe is divided into three stages of creation. In the sixth century, some Manichaeans believed the Earth was a rectangular shape surrounded by crystal walls, with three sky domes above it. These domes represented the "three heavens" from Chaldean religion.

Since its creation, Manichaeism has included detailed descriptions of gods and events in its view of the universe. These descriptions appear in different languages and cultures, such as Syriac, Latin, Persian, and Chinese. While the original Syriac writings kept Mani's original ideas, translations into other languages led to changes in how gods were described. For example, Chinese translations mixed Manichaean ideas with those from Chinese Buddhism.

Key figures in Manichaean belief include:

• The Father of Greatness: Also called Zurwān in Zoroastrianism. His names in other languages include "Unsurpassed Divinity of Light" (Chinese) and "Four Silent Dharmakayas" (Chinese).
• His Four Faces: Described in Greek as "the four-faced father of greatness."
• Divinity: Called "Yzd" in Middle Persian and "清净" (qīngjìng) in Chinese.
• Light: Known as "Rwšn" in Middle Persian and "光明" (guāngmíng) in Chinese.
• Power: Called "Zwr" in Middle Persian and "大力" (dàlì) in Chinese.
• Wisdom: Known as "Whyh" in Middle Persian and "智慧" (zhìhuì) in Chinese.
• His Five Shekhinas: Called "Five Great Ones" in Chinese.

Other important figures include:

• The Great Spirit: Known as "Spiritus Potens" in Latin.
• The Mother of Life: Called "Imā dəḥayyē" in Syriac and "善母佛" (shàn mǔ fó) in Chinese.
• The First Man: Also called Ohrmazd in Zoroastrianism and "Primus Homo" in Latin. His sons include the five elements of light: Ether, Wind, Light, Water, and Fire.
• The Answer-God: Known as "Shì Zhì" (Shì Zhì) in Chinese, a bodhisattva associated with wisdom.
• The Living Self: Described as "明性" (míngxìng) in Chinese, connected to the suffering Jesus.
• The Friend of the Lights: Called "樂明佛" (lè míng fó) in Chinese.
• The Great Builder: Known as "造相" (zào xiàng) in Chinese, responsible for creating a new world to separate light from darkness.
• The Living Spirit: Called "淨活風" (jìng huó fēng) in Chinese, a creator of the material world. His sons include the Keeper of the Splendour, the King of Glory, the Adamas of Light, and the Great King of Honour.
• Atlas: Known as "持世主" (chí shì zhǔ) in Chinese, who supports the eight worlds.
• The Call-God: Called "觀音" (Guānyīn) in Chinese, a bodhisattva of compassion.
• The Third Messenger: Known as "izgaddā" in Syriac.
• Jesus the Splendour: Called "光明夷數" (guāngmíng yíshù) in Chinese, sent to awaken Adam and Eve.
• The Maiden of Light: Described in Middle Persian and other languages.

The Manichaean Church

The Manichaean Church had two groups: the Elect and the Hearers. The Elect followed the rules of Manichaeism, including vows not to drink alcohol or eat meat, and they did not harvest crops or prepare food. Mani taught that harvesting crops was like harming plants, so the Elect avoided these actions. The Hearers, who did not take the same vows, would prepare food and give it to the Elect. In return, the Elect would pray for the Hearers and help them avoid sin.

These groups were similar to divisions in early Christianity, but their meanings were different. In Chinese records, the names for these groups were written as sounds rather than translated. Augustine of Hippo recorded these terms.

• The Leader (Syriac: ܟܗܢܐ /kɑhnɑ/ ; Parthian: yamag ; Chinese: 閻默 ; pinyin: yánmò): Mani’s chosen successor, who led the Church as Patriarch. He first lived in Ctesiphon and later in Samarkand starting in the ninth century. Important leaders included Mār Sīsin, Mani’s first successor, and Abū Hilāl al-Dayhūri, an eighth-century leader.
• 12 Apostles (Latin: magistrī ; Syriac: ܫܠܝܚܐ /ʃ(ə)liħe/ ; Middle Persian: možag ; Chinese: 慕闍 ; pinyin: mùdū): Three of Mani’s original followers were Mār Pattī (Mani’s father), Akouas, and Mar Ammo.
• 72 Bishops (Latin: episcopī ; Syriac: ܐܦܣܩܘܦܐ /ʔappisqoppe/ ; Middle Persian: aspasag, aftadan ; Chinese: 薩波塞 ; pinyin: sàbōsāi or 拂多誕 ; pinyin: fúduōdàn): Mār Addā was one of Mani’s followers who was specifically called a bishop.
• 360 Presbyters (Latin: presbyterī ; Syriac: ܩܫܝܫܐ /qaʃʃiʃe/ ; Middle Persian: mahistan ; Chinese: 默奚悉德 ; pinyin: mòxīxīdé).
• The general group of the Elect (Latin: ēlēctī ; Syriac: ܡܫܡܫܢܐ /m(ə)ʃamməʃɑne/ ; Middle Persian: ardawan or dēnāwar ; Chinese: 阿羅緩 ; pinyin: āluóhuǎn or 電那勿 ; pinyin: diànnàwù).
• The Hearers (Latin: audītōrēs ; Syriac: ܫܡܘܥܐ /ʃɑmoʿe/ ; Middle Persian: niyoshagan ; Chinese: 耨沙喭 ; pinyin: nòushāyàn).

Religious practices

From Manichaean sources, Manichaeans performed daily prayers. Those who were not chosen (hearers) prayed four times a day, while those who were chosen (the elect) prayed seven times. Different sources describe different times for these prayers. The Fihrist by al-Nadim lists the times as afternoon, mid-afternoon, just after sunset, and at nightfall. Al-Biruni describes the times as dawn, sunrise, noon, and dusk. The elect also prayed at mid-afternoon, half an hour after nightfall, and midnight. Al-Nadim’s description of prayer times likely matches the times used for Muslim public prayers, while Al-Biruni’s account may reflect an older tradition not influenced by Islam.

When Al-Nadim’s account was the only detailed source available, some believed Muslims adopted these practices during the Abbasid Caliphate. However, the Arabic text from Al-Nadim matches descriptions in Egyptian texts from the fourth century.

Each prayer began with a ritual washing using water or, if water was unavailable, other substances similar to Islamic ablution. The prayer included several blessings for the apostles and spirits. During each prayer, worshippers bowed to the ground and stood up twelve times. During the day, Manichaeans faced the Sun, and at night, they faced the Moon. If the Moon was not visible, they faced the north.

Faustus of Mileve wrote that celestial bodies, such as the Sun and Moon, were not worshipped directly. Instead, they were seen as "ships" carrying light particles from the world to the supreme god, who exists beyond time and space. These celestial bodies also served as homes for the supreme god’s emanations, such as Jesus the Splendour. Augustine of Hippo wrote that ten prayers were performed. The first was for the Father of Greatness, followed by prayers for lesser deities, spirits, and angels. The final prayer was for the elect, to be freed from rebirth and suffering and to reach peace in the realm of light. In the Uyghur confession, four prayers were directed to the supreme God (Äzrua), the God of the Sun and Moon, and fivefold God and the Buddhas.

Primary sources

Mani wrote seven books that included the teachings of his religion. Only some pieces and translations of the original books remain. Most were found in Egypt and Turkistan in the 20th century. The original six Syriac writings are not preserved, but their Syriac names have been recorded. Some parts and quotes from them still exist. A long quote from the 8th-century Nestorian Christian writer Theodore Bar Konai shows that the original Syriac Aramaic writings of Mani did not use terms from Iranian or Zoroastrian religions. The names of Manichaean gods in the original Syriac writings were in Aramaic. However, Manichaeism began to adopt ideas from Zoroastrianism during Mani’s lifetime, especially in his Middle Persian book called the Shabuhragan, which he wrote for the Sasanian emperor Shapur I. This book mentions Zoroastrian gods like Ahura Mazda, Angra Mainyu, and Āz.

Manichaeism is often described as a Persian religion because of the many Middle Persian, Parthian, and Sogdian texts discovered in Xinjiang, China, by German researchers in the early 1900s. However, based on the original Syriac descriptions (as recorded by Theodore Bar Konai), Manichaeism may have started as a unique religious movement in Aramaic Babylonia, near other new Aramaic religions like Talmudic Judaism and Mandaeism, which also appeared in Babylonia around the 3rd century.

The original six sacred books of Manichaeism were written in Syriac Aramaic and translated into other languages to spread the religion. As it spread eastward, the writings were translated into Middle Persian, Parthian, Sogdian, Tocharian, Uyghur, and Chinese. As it spread westward, they were translated into Greek, Coptic, and Latin. Most Manichaean texts survived only as Coptic and Medieval Chinese translations of the original, lost versions.

Henning explains how the translation process changed and influenced Manichaeans in Central Asia:

• The Gospel of Mani (Syriac: ܐܘܢܓܠܝܘܢ /ʔɛwwanɡallijon/ ; Koine Greek: εὐαγγέλιον "good news, gospel"). Parts of the first chapter were quoted in Arabic by ibn al-Nadim in his 938 book, the Fihrist, a list of all known books at the time.
• The Treasure of Life
• The Treatise (Coptic: πραγματεία, pragmateia)
• Secrets
• The Book of Giants: Original pieces were found at Qumran (before Manichaeism) and Turpan.
• Epistles: Augustine included quotes from Mani’s Fundamental Epistle in some of his writings against Manichaeism.
• Psalms and Prayers: A Coptic Manichaean Psalm Book, found in Egypt in the early 1900s, was edited and published by Charles Allberry from manuscripts in the Chester Beatty collection and the Berlin Academy in 1938–39.

• The Shabuhragan, dedicated to Shapur I: Original Middle Persian pieces were found at Turpan, and quotes were included in Arabic by al-Biruni.
• The Ardahang, the "Picture Book." In Iranian tradition, this was one of Mani’s holy books remembered in later Persian history. It was also called Aržang, a Parthian word meaning "Worthy," and included paintings. Iranians gave Mani the title "The Painter."
• The Kephalaia of the Teacher (Κεφαλαια), "Discourses," found in Coptic translation.
• On the Origin of His Body, the title of the Cologne Mani-Codex, a Greek translation of an Aramaic book about Mani’s early life.

• Parts of the Book of Enoch literature, such as the Book of Giants
• Texts related to the apostle Thomas (who went to India and was honored in Syria), such as parts of the Syriac The Acts of Thomas and the Psalms of Thomas. The Gospel of Thomas was also linked to Manichaeans by Cyril of Jerusalem, a 4th-century Church leader.
• The story of Barlaam and Josaphat, which began as an Indian tale about the Buddha, was adapted by Manichaeans before becoming a Christian saint’s story in the West.

Later, as Manichaeism spread through Persian-speaking areas and reached the Uyghur Khaganate (回鶻帝國) and the Uyghur kingdom of Turpan (destroyed around 1335), Middle Persian and Parthian prayers (āfrīwan or āfurišn) and Parthian hymn-cycles (Huwīdagmān and Angad Rōšnan by Mar Ammo) were added to Manichaean writings. A translation of these created the Manichaean Chinese Hymnscroll (Chinese: 摩尼教下部讚; pinyin: Móní-jiào Xiàbù Zàn), which Lieu translated as "Hymns for the Lower Section [i.e., the Hearers] of the Manichaean Religion."

This text includes hymns attributed to Mani and prayers from his earliest followers, such as Mār Zaku, Mār Ammo, and Mār Sīsin. Another Chinese work is a full translation of the Sermon of the Light Nous, presented as a discussion between Mani and his disciple Adda.

Until the 1900s, the only sources for Manichaeism were descriptions and quotes from non-Manichaean authors, such as Christians, Muslims, Buddhists, or Zoroastrians. These sources often criticized Manichaeism but also quoted

Figurative use

The words "Manichaean" and "Manichaeism" are sometimes used in a symbolic way as synonyms for the term "dualist," which refers to a philosophy, outlook, or worldview. These terms are often used to describe a worldview that simplifies complex events by focusing only on a conflict between good and evil. For example, Zbigniew Brzezinski used the phrase "Manichaean paranoia" to describe U.S. president George W. Bush's worldview during a 2007 television show; he explained this meant seeing the situation as a battle between "forces of good" and the "Axis of Evil." Author Glenn Greenwald later discussed this idea in his 2007 book A Tragic Legacy.

The term is often used by critics to describe the attitudes and foreign policies of the United States and its leaders.

Philosopher Frantz Fanon often used the idea of Manichaeism when discussing violence between people who colonize and those who are colonized.

In My Secret History, the main character in Paul Theroux’s book explains the word "Manichaean" to his son by saying it means "seeing that good and evil are mixed together." Before explaining the word, the character mentions Joseph Conrad’s short story "The Secret Sharer" at least twice in the book. The story also explores the idea of good and evil being connected.