Merkabah (Hebrew: מֶרְכָּבָה, romanized: merkāḇā, meaning "chariot") or Merkavah mysticism (meaning "Chariot mysticism") is a type of early Jewish mysticism that existed around 100 BCE to 1000 CE. This tradition focuses on visions described in the book of Ezekiel 1 and other writings called hekhalot literature ("palaces" literature), which tell stories about traveling to heavenly palaces and seeing God's throne.
The main collection of Merkabah writings was created between 200 and 700 CE. Later writings about the Chariot tradition also appear in the works of the Hasidim of Ashkenaz during the Middle Ages. An important text in this tradition is the Maaseh Merkabah (Hebrew: מַעֲשֵׂה מֶרְכָּבָה, romanized: maʿăśē merkāḇā, meaning "The Work of the Chariot").
Etymology
The noun merkavah, meaning "a thing to ride in, such as a cart," comes from the Biblical Hebrew verb r-k-b, which means "to ride." The word "chariot" appears 44 times in the Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Bible, usually describing regular chariots on Earth. While the idea of the merkavah is linked to Ezekiel’s vision, the word itself is not used in Ezekiel 1.
However, when the Hebrew term merkavah is not translated, it can refer to the throne-chariot of God in prophetic visions. This is most closely connected to the vision in Ezekiel 1, which describes a four-wheeled vehicle pulled by four hayyot ("living creatures") with four wings. These creatures have the faces of a man, a lion, an ox, and a large predatory bird. The last creature, called nešer in Hebrew, is often translated as "eagle," but it may also refer to the Eurasian griffon vulture today.
Ezekiel's vision of the chariot
According to the verses in Ezekiel and related explanations, the vision includes a chariot made up of many heavenly beings driven by the "Likeness of a Man." The base of the chariot is formed by four beings called the "living creatures" (Hebrew: חיות hayyot or khayyot). These creatures have bodies similar to humans, but each has four faces that match the four directions the chariot can move (East, South, North, and West). The faces are those of a man, a lion, an ox (later changed to a cherub in Ezekiel 10:14), and a vulture. Since there are four angels and each has four faces, there are a total of sixteen faces. Each hayyot angel also has four wings. Two of these wings stretch across the chariot and connect with the wings of the angel on the opposite side. This forms a "box" of wings that surrounds the chariot. The other two wings cover each angel's body. Below the feet of the hayyot angels, but not attached to them, are other angels shaped like wheels. These wheel-like angels, described as "a wheel inside of a wheel," are called "ophanim" (Hebrew: אופנים, meaning wheels, cycles, or ways). These wheels are not directly under the chariot but are near it and along its edge. The angel with the face of a man is always on the east side and looks upward at the "Likeness of a Man" who drives the chariot. The "Likeness of a Man" sits on a throne made of a material similar to "sapphire."
Later in the Bible, a third type of angel in the merkabah is mentioned: the "seraphim" (Hebrew: שְׂרָפִים, meaning "burning") angels. These angels appear as flashes of fire that continuously move upward and downward. The seraphim angels provide the power for the chariot's movement. In the hierarchy of these angels, the hayyot are highest, meaning they are closest to God, followed by the ophanim, and then the seraphim. The chariot is always moving, and its motion is powered by this hierarchy. The movement of the ophanim is controlled by the "Living creatures," or hayyot, while the movement of the hayyot is controlled by the seraphim. All the angels of the chariot are controlled by the "Likeness of a Man" seated on the throne.
Early Jewish merkabah mysticism
Mark Verman has identified four periods in early Jewish mysticism, beginning with the visions of the Throne/Chariot described by Isaiah and Ezekiel and later developing into the Merkabah mysticism texts found in historical records.
The earliest Rabbinic Merkabah commentaries were explanations of the prophetic visions of God in the heavens and the divine retinue of angels, hosts, and heavenly creatures surrounding God. Early records suggest that Merkabah teachings did not always lead to personal spiritual experiences. One rabbinic sage noted, "Many have studied the Merkabah without ever seeing it."
A passage in the Talmud highlights the importance of Merkabah teachings: "A great issue—the account of the Merkavah; a small issue—the discussions of Abaye and Rava [famous Talmudic sages]." The sages Yohanan ben Zakkai (died around 80 CE) and Rabbi Akiva (died 135 CE) were deeply involved in interpreting Merkabah texts. Rabbi Akiva and his contemporary Ishmael ben Elisha often appear in later Merkabah literature about spiritual ascents.
The Talmud contains many warnings against discussing Merkabah teachings. These discussions were limited to highly respected scholars, and stories about the dangers of overzealous study are recorded. For example, a passage from Sirach (iii. 21–22) advises, "Do not seek things that are too difficult for you. Focus on what is required of you." Another rule states that the text Ma'aseh Bereishit (the Work of Creation) must not be taught to fewer than two people, and Ma'aseh Merkabah (the Work of the Chariot) must not be taught to fewer than one person unless that person is wise and capable of understanding it on their own. The Jerusalem Talmud notes that chapter headings of Ma'aseh Merkabah could be taught, as done by Hiyya bar Abba. According to the Jerusalem Talmud, a teacher would read the headings, and after approval, the student would read the rest of the chapter. However, Rabbi Zera stated that even the headings could only be shared with someone who was a school leader and cautious in nature.
Rabbi Ammi taught that the secret teachings of Merkabah could only be entrusted to someone who met five specific qualities described in Isaiah 3:3 (experience in one of five professions requiring good judgment) and who was of a certain age. When Yohanan ben Zakkai wanted to teach Eleazar ben Azariah about Ma'aseh Merkabah, Eleazar replied, "I am not yet old enough." A boy who understood the meaning of the word chashmal (from Ezekiel 1:4) was consumed by fire, as recorded in Hagigah 13b. These stories emphasize the risks of discussing Merkabah without proper guidance, as noted in Hagigah ii. 1 and Shab. 80b.
Early Jewish groups, including those associated with Synagogal Judaism and secessionist priests, created visionary explanations of the divine realm and creatures similar to those described in Merkabah texts. The secessionist priestly writings viewed Ezekiel’s Merkavah as a model of sacred heavenly space, interpreting it as a mystical transformation of the Holy of Holies, a combination of Temple details representing the sacred.
Some Dead Sea Scrolls suggest that the Qumran community also studied Merkabah texts. Recently discovered mystical writings show a strong connection to Merkabah teachings.
Merkabah homilies later included detailed descriptions of multiple heavens, often seven, guarded by angels and surrounded by flames and lightning. The highest heaven contains seven hekhalot ("palaces"), with a supreme divine image seated on a throne in the innermost palace, surrounded by divine beings praising God.
The combination of these visions with the idea of personal spiritual journeys (called "descent" in most texts, Yordei Merkabah, or "descenders of the chariot") and the union with the divine is not fully explained in the texts.
Maaseh Merkabah ("the Work of the Chariot") is the modern name for a Hekhalot text discovered by scholar Gershom Scholem. This text dates from the late Hellenistic period, after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. It reflects a form of Jewish mysticism that developed after the Temple’s destruction, when physical pilgrimages to the Temple were no longer possible. This mystical tradition, considered a precursor to Kabbalah, taught that individuals could journey spiritually to God and bring divine powers to Earth. It likely grew from priestly mysticism seen in the Dead Sea Scrolls and some apocalyptic writings.
Later Jewish mystical movements and Kabbalah students focused on Ezekiel’s passages, seeking deeper meanings and secrets of creation in the metaphorical language used in the texts.
Because some Torah scholars feared that misunderstanding these passages as literal descriptions of God’s image might lead to blasphemy or idolatry, studying Merkabah was restricted to those with proper training. Jewish commentaries emphasize that the Merkabah imagery is symbolic, not literal, representing how God reveals Himself in the world. Hasidic philosophy and Kabbalah explore what each part of the vision signifies in the physical world and clarify that the vision does not imply God has a physical form.
Jews traditionally read the Biblical passages about the Merkabah in synagogues every year during the holiday of Shavuot, and the Merkabah is also mentioned in traditional Jewish prayers.
The main focus of Hekhalot literature is on divine visions, mystical ascents to heaven, and the divine council, as well as controlling great angels to gain insight into the Torah. These practices are based on biblical accounts of Ezekiel’s Chariot vision and Isaiah’s Temple vision (Chapter 6). Hekhalot literature also draws from many non-biblical apocalyptic writings about heavenly journeys. However, it differs from Qumran literature and apocalyptic writings by not focusing on the end of the world, ignoring the unique role of the priesthood, and not discussing fallen angels or demons. It also makes divine ascents accessible to more people, not just a select few.
In their visions, mystics would travel through the seven stages of the heavens and seven throne rooms. This journey was dangerous, requiring purification, knowledge of incantations, angelic names, and how to navigate forces inside and outside the palaces.
The heavenly journey was achieved by reciting hymns and using secret names of God, which are central to Hekhalot literature. The Hekalot Zutarti specifically focuses on the power of these secret names of God, such as:
This is His great name, with which Moses divided the great sea:
בשובר ירברב סגי בדסיקין מרא סחטי בר סאיי לבים
This is His great name which turned
The merkabah in later Jewish interpretations
Maimonides’ 12th-century work, Guide for the Perplexed, partly explains the passages Ma'aseh Bereshit and Ma'aseh Merkabah. In the third volume, Maimonides begins explaining the mystical ideas in the merkabah passages, while justifying why he moves from giving hints to offering direct instruction. He uses terms from the Bible, such as Spheres, elements, and Intelligences, to explain basic mystical ideas. However, these chapters still provide little direct explanation.
The text often mentions a rule from Jewish Sages: "Do not discuss Ma'aseh Merkabah even in front of one student unless he is wise and intelligent. If so, only give him the main ideas of the chapters." Therefore, teaching these subjects must begin based on the student’s ability. Two conditions must be met: first, the student must have completed earlier studies, and second, the student must be intelligent, clear-minded, and quick to understand, as the Sages described it.
Kabbalah connects the merkabah vision of Ezekiel and the throne vision of Isaiah (Isaiah 6:1–8), which describes the seraph angels, to its concept of the Four Worlds. The highest world, Atziluth ("Emanation"—Divine wisdom), is where God is fully revealed without self-awareness. This is metaphorically shown as the image of a man on a throne. The "throne of sapphire" is linked to the Sephirot, divine powers in Kabbalah. The second world, Beriah ("Creation"—Divine understanding), is the first independent creation, where God appears as a king who limits His greatness when seated. This world is the realm of the Seraphim ("burning" in their ascent and descent as they seek to understand God). The third world, Yetzirah ("Formation"—Divine emotions), is where archetypal angels, the Hayyot ("alive" with divine emotion), reside. These angels are described with the faces of a lion, ox, and eagle, reflecting their instinctive, animal-like emotions. They are the archetypal origins of creatures in the physical world. The lowest world, Assiah ("Action"—Divine rulership), is where the Ophanim ("ways") guide the creation of the physical world.
The Rabbinic Talmud compares the visions of God’s chariot-throne in Ezekiel and Isaiah. Ezekiel’s vision includes many details, while Isaiah’s is brief. The Talmud explains this by noting that Isaiah lived during the time of Solomon’s Temple, while Ezekiel’s vision occurred during the Babylonian exile. Rava, a Talmudic scholar, explains that Ezekiel did not see more than Isaiah but described the vision more vividly because he was less familiar with such visions, like a peasant describing a royal court in more detail than a courtier who is used to it. Like all prophets except Moses, Ezekiel saw only a blurred reflection of God’s true majesty, similar to how a poor mirror reflects images imperfectly.
Kabbalah explains this difference using the Four Worlds. All prophecy comes from the divine chokmah (wisdom) in Atziluth. To be understood, it must travel down through the lower worlds. Isaiah’s vision came from the world of Beriah (divine understanding), where he realized the limits of describing God. Ezekiel’s vision came from the lower world of Yetzirah (divine emotions), which allowed him to describe the vision in great detail.
The visions of Ezekiel and Isaiah are part of the Kedushah prayer in Jewish daily worship:
“We will sanctify Your name in the world, just as they do in the highest heavens, as written by Your prophet: ‘Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of Hosts; the whole earth is full of His glory.’”
Those opposite them (the Hayyot) say, “Blessed: ‘Blessed be the glory of the Lord from His place.’”
And in Your holy words it is written: “The Lord shall reign forever, Your God, O Zion, unto all generations; Hallelujah.”
According to Kabbalah, the Seraphim ("burning" angels) in Beriah (divine understanding) recognize their distance from the absolute divinity of Atziluth. Their repeated call, “Holy,” means they are separated from God. This causes them to constantly nullify themselves, rising to God and returning to their place. They understand that God’s purpose for creation is to work with humans. The lower Hayyot ("living" angels) in Yetzirah (divine emotions) say, “Blessed,” which means they draw down divine blessings from the distant, unknown realm of Atziluth to the physical world. In Ezekiel’s vision, the Hayyot play a central role in channeling divine energy into creation.
Hasidic thought explains Kabbalah using human psychology. The merkabah is a layered analogy that helps people understand themselves, the world, and how to improve.
The four Hayyot angels represent basic archetypes God used to create the world. Ophanim, meaning "ways," show how these archetypes combine to form real things in the world. For example, the lion represents fire, the ox represents earth, the man represents water, and the eagle represents air. In reality, everything is a mix of all four, and the specific combination in each thing is its Ophanim or "ways."
The "man on the throne" in Ezekiel’s vision symbolizes God, who controls everything in the world and guides how archetypes interact. However, the man on the throne only moves when the four angels join their wings. This means God is not revealed through looking at elements like fire, water, earth, and air as separate things. Instead, when these opposing forces work together in harmony, it shows that a higher power (God) is guiding
Parallels in early Christianity
According to Timo Eskola, early Christian beliefs and teachings were shaped by the Jewish merkabah tradition. Scholars Alan Segal and Daniel Boyarin believe that Paul the Apostle's description of his conversion experience and his journey to Heaven (2 Corinthians 12:2–4) is the earliest known written story from a person’s own perspective about a merkabah mystic in Jewish or Christian writings. Timothy Churchill argues that Paul’s vision on the road to Damascus (Acts 9:1–9) does not match the pattern of merkabah mysticism. However, Paul’s letters do not describe this event, and the Book of Acts does not claim to be a first-person account (Acts 1:1–2; Luke 1:1–4).
Biblical scholar Garrett Evan Best states that the vision described in the book of Ezekiel influenced the themes and stories about the end of the world in the New Testament’s Book of Revelation. The words and symbols used by John in Revelation 1:13–20 and Revelation 4:1–11 clearly reference the vision of the merkabah or the heavenly throne of God, which comes from Ezekiel 1. In Christian art, the four living creatures (a man, a lion, an ox, and an eagle) are used as symbols for the Four Evangelists. These symbols appear often in church decorations: the lion represents Mark, the ox represents Luke, the man represents Matthew, and the eagle represents John. These creatures are called Zoë or the Tetramorph and are shown surrounding the throne of God in Heaven, along with twenty-four elders and seven spirits of God, as described in Revelation 4:1–11.