Microplastics are tiny plastic pieces that are either shaped regularly or irregularly and range in size from 1 micrometer (1 μm) to 5 millimeters (5 mm). They can come from two sources: primary, which are already small when they enter the environment, or secondary, which form when larger plastic items break down over time. Microplastics cause pollution by entering natural environments from sources like cosmetics, clothing, construction, food packaging, and industrial activities. Scientists have developed strategies to help reduce the harm caused by microplastics.

The term "microplastics" is used to describe these tiny pieces, which are different from larger plastic waste that can be seen with the naked eye. There are two main types of microplastics. Primary microplastics are already 5 mm or smaller when they enter the environment. Examples include tiny fibers from clothing, microbeads, glitter, and small plastic pellets called nurdles. Secondary microplastics form when larger plastic items, such as water bottles, plastic bags, or tire particles, break down due to weathering or other natural processes.

Both types of microplastics remain in the environment for long periods, especially in water and marine ecosystems, where they act as a form of water pollution. They are also found in the air and on land, including indoors and outdoors.

Because some plastics take hundreds or even thousands of years to break down, microplastics are often swallowed by animals and can build up in their bodies and tissues. In soil, microplastics have been shown to harm the health of ecosystems.

Over time, microplastics may break down into even smaller pieces called nanoplastics, which are smaller than 1 micrometer (1 μm). Nanoplastics are too small to be seen by the human eye.

Classification

The term "microplastics" was first widely used in a 2004 paper by Professor Richard Thompson, a marine biologist at the University of Plymouth in the United Kingdom. However, earlier examples of the term being used in connection with marine pollution date back to the early 1990s and into the early 2000s. Evidence also shows that scientists who first used the term were studying the topic as early as the late 1980s.

Microplastics are found in many places today. In 2014, scientists estimated that between 15 and 51 trillion individual pieces of microplastic exist in the world's oceans. These pieces were estimated to weigh between 93,000 and 236,000 metric tons. Over time, sunlight, wind, waves, and other natural forces cause plastic to break down into tiny fragments called microplastics, or even smaller pieces called nanoplastics.

Primary microplastics are tiny plastic pieces made intentionally for specific uses. They are often found in facial cleansers, cosmetics, and air-blasting technology. In some cases, they are used in medicine to carry drugs. Microplastic "scrubbers" in skincare products replace natural ingredients like ground almonds and pumice. These scrubbers are also used in air-blasting technology to clean machinery, engines, and boat hulls by blasting materials like acrylic, melamine, or polyester. As these scrubbers wear down, they may collect heavy metals such as cadmium, chromium, and lead. Many companies have agreed to reduce microbead production, but some bioplastic microbeads still take a long time to break down, especially in cosmetics.

Secondary microplastics form when larger plastic items break down over time due to physical, biological, or chemical processes. Exposure to sunlight, for example, can weaken plastic until it becomes too small to see with the naked eye. This process is called fragmentation. Scientists believe microplastics may break down even further into smaller pieces, though the smallest detected in the ocean in 2017 was 1.6 micrometers in diameter. The irregular shapes of many microplastics suggest fragmentation is a major source. Some studies suggest biodegradable plastics may create more microplastics than non-biodegradable plastics in both seawater and freshwater.

Microplastic fibers enter the environment when synthetic clothing is washed or when synthetic tires wear down during use. These fibers and tiny plastic particles from tire erosion become dust. Small plastic pellets, used to make other products, can also enter ecosystems through spills or accidents.

A 2015 report by the Norwegian Environment Agency suggested that classifying microplastics as "primary" is helpful if they are added to the environment by humans, such as through products, and not from natural processes like fragmentation.

Depending on the definition, nanoplastics are smaller than 1 micrometer (1,000 nanometers) or even smaller than 100 nanometers. Scientists are still studying nanoplastics, as they may be a temporary byproduct of microplastic breakdown or a serious environmental risk due to their tiny size and potential to accumulate. Nanoplastics have been found in the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre. New tools like Raman Tweezers and nano-FTIR are helping scientists study nanoplastic levels in the environment. Fluorescence is also being explored as a way to detect and measure nanoplastics quickly and inexpensively. A method using microfluidics has been developed to group nanoplastics for easier study. However, understanding nanoplastics fully requires more research on their properties and how they interact with living organisms.

Nanoplastics may harm the environment and human health. Because they are so small, they can pass through cell membranes and disrupt cell function. They can mix with fats and may enter the fatty parts of cell membranes. Studies show nanoplastics can move through fish membranes and reach organs like the gallbladder, pancreas, and brain. They may also affect bone cell activity, leading to improper bone growth. Little is known about how nanoplastics affect humans, but in zebrafish, polystyrene nanoplastics have been linked to changes in stress responses, including altered glucose and cortisol levels. In water fleas, polystyrene nanoplastics can harm growth and reproduction and trigger stress defenses. Nanoplastics may also carry harmful chemicals like antibiotics, which can help antibiotic-resistant bacteria spread through soil.

Sources of microplastics

Scientists study microplastics in the environment by examining water samples, looking at sand and mud from the bottom of oceans and lakes, observing how animals eat them, and testing how they mix with harmful chemicals. Microplastics are also found in the air. A report from 2017 said microplastics are a major cause of plastic pollution in the ocean. These tiny plastics can absorb heavy metals from seawater.

Microplastics can enter land areas through many ways, such as broken plastic films used in farming, compost and sewage sludge used in soil, and rainwater that carries them from the air or land. How microplastics spread in soil depends on farming methods, land use, and weather.

Scientists have found microplastics in soil even when no plastic was directly added, showing that they come from many small sources and build up over time. People mostly get microplastics by eating them, as they are found in drinking water, bottled water, seafood, salt, sugar, tea bags, milk, and other daily items.

In 2017, more than eight million tons of plastic entered the ocean, which is over 33 times the total amount of plastic in the ocean in 2015. One result is that ocean animals eat microplastics. It is estimated that Europeans eat about 11,000 microplastic particles per person each year through eating shellfish.

Microplastics can get into drinking water through rainwater runoff, wastewater from homes and factories, overflow from sewers, industrial waste, broken plastic waste, and dust from the air. Rainwater runoff and wastewater are the main sources, but more research is needed to understand exactly where they come from. Plastic bottles and bottle caps have been shown to be sources of microplastics in drinking water.

Microplastics are also found in soil, especially in farmland. They can move into plants through their water systems, reaching roots, stems, leaves, and fruits. When microplastics enter soil through sewage, compost, or plastic films used in farming, they can pollute food, increasing the risk of people eating them. A 2023 study found that microplastics can harm soil health and reduce crop growth by disrupting soil microbes and water storage.

Synthetic fabrics like polyester, nylon, acrylics, and spandex release microplastics when washed. One piece of clothing can release more than 1,900 fibers per wash, with fleeces releasing the most. A typical wash of 6 kilograms (13 pounds) of clothing can release over 700,000 fibers. Washing machine filters can help reduce the number of microfibers that reach wastewater treatment plants.

These microfibers are found in the food chain, from small sea creatures to large animals like whales. Polyester, a common fabric used instead of cotton, is a major source of microplastics in land, air, and water. Washing clothes releases over 100 fibers per liter of water, which may lead to health risks from chemicals used in making the fabric. These fibers are found in 33% of dust in homes.

Studies have measured microplastic fibers in both indoor and outdoor spaces. Indoor air had 1.0–60.0 fibers per cubic meter, while outdoor air had much fewer, at 0.3–1.5 fibers per cubic meter. Indoors, about 1,586–11,130 fibers settle on surfaces each day, adding up to around 190–670 fibers per milligram of dust.

Plastic containers can release microplastics and tiny particles into food and drinks. A study found that 93% of bottled water from 11 brands had microplastics, with an average of 325 particles per liter. Brands like Nestlé Pure Life and Gerolsteiner had the most, with 930 and 807 particles per liter, respectively. Bottled water had twice as much microplastic as tap water. A 2024 study found 240,000 microplastic fragments per liter, most smaller than 1 micrometer.

Some microplastics in bottled water may come from the bottling process or water filters. In 2020, researchers found that baby bottles made of polypropylene released microplastics when used with warm liquids, with exposure ranging from 14,600 to 4,550,000 particles per baby per day in 48 regions. Silicone baby bottle nipples also break down over time, releasing microplastics when used with hot liquids. A baby using such nipples for a year could ingest over 660,000 particles.

Single-use plastic items like cups, even paper cups with plastic linings, release trillions of microplastic and nanoplastic particles into water during normal use. These items often end up in waterways, and policies that reduce single-use plastics are effective ways to fight pollution.

Plastics are widely used in construction and renovation. Activities like building, repairing, or tearing down structures create airborne microplastic dust. Materials like PVC, polycarbonate, polypropylene, and acrylic can break down over time, releasing microplastics. Single-use plastics used during construction, such as containers and wrappers, add to waste. These plastics are hard to recycle and often end up in landfills, where they slowly break down and may release microplastics into soil or air.

Because of the environmental harm from plastic waste in construction, better waste management is needed. Some researchers have tried using recycled plastic in concrete to reduce waste, but this could cause microplastics to leak into the environment. More research is needed to understand these risks.

About 20% of all plastics and 70% of all PVC made worldwide each year are used in construction and other industries.

Exposure pathways

Airborne microplastics have been found in the atmosphere, both indoors and outdoors. These tiny plastic pieces can be carried by the wind to faraway places. A 2017 study found indoor air had between 1.0 and 60.0 microfibers per cubic meter of air, with 33% of these being microplastics. Another study in Tehran found 2,649 microplastic particles in 10 samples of street dust, with concentrations ranging from 83 to 605 particles per 30.0 grams of dust. Microplastics and microfibers have also been found in snow and in "clean" air high in mountain areas, far from where they started. Like in water and soil, more research is needed to understand how airborne microplastics affect the environment.

A growing concern about plastic pollution in the ocean is the use of microplastics. These are small plastic pieces less than 5 millimeters wide, often found in soaps, face cleansers, and other products that remove dead skin. When these products are washed down the drain, the microplastics enter water systems and eventually reach the ocean. Because they are so small, they often pass through the filters at wastewater treatment plants. These tiny plastics can harm ocean life, especially animals that filter water, because they may eat the plastic and get sick. Microplastics are hard to clean up because of their size, so people can help by choosing products that use safer materials instead of plastic beads.

Plastic is used so widely that microplastics are now common in the ocean. They can be found on beaches, in surface water, in deep ocean sediments, and in the water column. Microplastics are also mixed with other materials in the ocean, such as dead plant or animal matter and soil particles carried by wind or rivers. The number of microplastics in an area is often linked to how many people live nearby and how close the area is to cities.

Plastic pollution has been found in the Antarctic and Arctic, including in sea ice. In 2009, scientists found 96 microplastic particles made from 14 types of plastic in a sample of Antarctic sea ice. The size of these particles suggests they may have come from nearby sources.

Microplastics are common in freshwater environments like lakes and rivers. A 2011 study found an average of 37.8 microplastic fragments per square meter of sediment in Lake Huron. Studies in the Great Lakes found an average of 43,000 microplastic particles per square kilometer. In Poland, a 2019 study found microplastics in all 30 lakes studied, with concentrations ranging from 0.27 to 1.57 particles per liter of water. In Canada, a three-year study found an average of 193,420 microplastic particles per square kilometer in Lake Winnipeg. Most of the microplastics found were fibers from clothing, synthetic materials, or atmospheric fallout. The highest concentration of microplastics found in a freshwater study was 4,000 particles per kilogram in the Rhine River.

Scientists in the United States found microplastics in Richland Creek, with 90% of the particles being fibers from clothing, city runoff, or atmospheric dust.

Microplastics are likely to end up in soil, but few studies have looked at them in soil outside of water environments. In wetlands, microplastic levels are lower where there is more plant life. Some researchers think fibers from washing machines might reach soil if water treatment plants fail to remove them completely. Soil animals like earthworms and mites might also help create microplastics by breaking down plastic they eat. More research is needed to understand this better. Studies have shown that using organic waste materials can lead to synthetic fibers in soil, but most research on plastics in soil only reports their presence without details about where they came from or how many there are. Some studies found fibers from wastewater sludge applied to soil still remained in the soil years later.

A 2015 study of 15 brands of table salt in China found more microplastics in sea salt than in lake, rock, or well salt. This is because sea salt is often polluted by ocean water, while other types of salt are more likely to be polluted during production. A 2017 study estimated that people who eat seafood may swallow 11,000 microplastic pieces each year. A 2019 study found 440 microplastic particles in a kilogram of sugar, 110 in a kilogram of salt, and 94 in a liter of bottled water.

Composition

Microplastics are made up of many different materials. A study in 2023 tested some fish species and found that about 80% of the microplastics found were shaped like fibers and were made of polyethylene (25%), polyester (20%), and polyamide (10%). Most microplastic particles observed were black (61%) or blue (27%) in color.

Microplastics contain two different types of chemicals. The first are additives and polymeric raw materials such as monomers or oligomers. Additives are chemicals added during plastic production to give plastic certain qualities like color and transparency and to help plastic resist damage from ozone, temperature, light, mold, bacteria, humidity, and improve mechanical, thermal, and electrical resistance. Examples of additives in microplastics include inert or reinforcing fillers, plasticizers, antioxidants, UV stabilizers, lubricants, dyes, and flame-retardants. The second type of chemicals are ones absorbed from the surrounding environment.

Effects on the environment

In 2008, a group of international scientists at the University of Washington at Tacoma found that microplastics were a problem in the ocean. They based this on evidence that microplastics were found in the environment, stayed in the ocean for a long time, could build up over time, and were eaten by sea creatures.

A 2019 review by the European Union’s Scientific Advice Mechanism showed that microplastics were found everywhere in the environment. At that time, there was no clear proof that microplastics caused major harm to ecosystems, but scientists warned that if pollution continued, risks could spread widely within 100 years.

By 2020, microplastics had been found in freshwater areas like marshes, streams, lakes, and rivers in Europe, North America, South America, Asia, and Australia. In the United States, samples from 29 rivers near the Great Lakes showed that 98% of the plastic particles were microplastics, ranging in size from 0.355mm to 4.75mm. Microplastics were also found in high mountain regions far from where they originated.

In 2020, ocean sediment surveys in China found plastic particles in layers of sediment older than the invention of plastics. This suggests that studies of surface ocean samples might have underestimated the amount of microplastics present.

In September 2021, Hurricane Larry passed over Newfoundland, Canada. During the storm, it released 113,000 microplastic particles per square meter each day. Studies showed that these microplastics likely came from the ocean, as the hurricane passed through the North Atlantic garbage patch.

A 2025 study in China found that typhoons can move microplastics from the ocean to land. Research on Typhoon Gaemi showed that it deposited up to 12,722 microplastic particles per square meter each day in Ningbo, with a peak rate 54 times higher than normal levels in Beijing. The study explained that typhoons pull microplastics from the ocean and carry them into the air through sea spray, spreading them to land.

By 2023, research on microplastic pollution had grown rapidly. Most studies focused on marine and estuary environments. Scientists urged better sharing of research data to help solve the problem.

A 2023 study identified a new disease called plasticosis, which is caused by plastic ingestion. This disease causes fibrous tissue changes and inflammation in the digestive systems of seabirds, different from general physical damage.

Over time, plastic pollution can release toxic chemicals, a problem scientists call "toxicity debt." Microplastics are small, less than 5 mm, and can be eaten by all species. They enter the food chain at the bottom and get trapped in animal tissues.

Microplastics and nanoplastics can enter animals’ bodies through eating or breathing. Studies showed that animals exposed to high amounts of microplastics over time accumulate them in their guts and gills. For example, deposit-feeding lugworms and crustaceans like shore crabs have been found to ingest microplastics. Fish often mistake microplastics for food, which can block their digestive systems and send wrong signals to their brains. A 2021 study found that fish eat microplastics accidentally, not intentionally. The first evidence of microplastics in wild animals was found in the skin of salmon, where they resembled viruses trapped by the skin. This discovery happened by chance during research on fish skin.

A study at the Rio de la Plata estuary found microplastics in the guts of 11 species of freshwater fish. These fish had different eating habits, including eating dead matter, plankton, plants, and other fish. This study is one of the few to show that freshwater animals eat microplastics.

Microplastics can take up to 14 days to pass through an animal’s body, compared to 2 days for normal digestion. If microplastics get stuck in gills, they might not leave the body at all. When animals with microplastics are eaten by predators, the microplastics move up the food chain. For example, small fish called lanternfish, which are eaten by tuna and swordfish, have been found to have plastic in their stomachs. Microplastics also absorb harmful chemicals, which can enter animals’ bodies. Small animals may eat less food because microplastics make them feel full, leading to starvation or physical harm.

Zooplankton, tiny water animals, eat microplastics and pass them out in their waste. Microplastics also stick to their bodies. Zooplankton eat microplastics because they smell like phytoplankton, which they normally eat. Plastics like plastic bags and food containers release a chemical that smells like dimethyl sulfide, a scent zooplankton recognize. These plastics are often found in plankton and seaweed.

Bottom feeders like sea cucumbers eat sediment from the ocean floor. Studies showed that sea cucumbers can eat much more plastic than sand. This suggests they might choose to eat plastic, contradicting the idea that they eat everything indiscriminately.

Caddisfly larvae, which build protective cases, now include microplastics in their cases. In 2023, scientists found caddisfly cases from 1971 and 1986 that already had microplastics, showing that microplastics were present in nature before the term was created. These old samples help scientists study microplastics’ history in water ecosystems. A 2025 study found that in some streams, more than half of all caddisfly cases contained microplastics.

Human health

Although scientists are still learning how microplastics affect human health, they can study possible effects using models that show how the body absorbs tiny materials made during industrial processes. Many lab and living organism studies have found that microplastics and even smaller nanoplastics can harm the body by causing physical stress, cell death, inflammation, and changes in how cells function. Microplastic pollution has been linked to health problems such as breathing issues and inflammation, but it was unclear if these were direct causes. Microplastics can build up in the brain, especially in materials like polyethylene.

Microplastics often contain harmful chemicals, such as phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA), which can interfere with the body’s hormone system. These chemicals and the microplastics themselves can disrupt the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis, a system that helps control male reproductive functions.

A study from Harvard found that microplastics are connected to inflammation, cell death, effects on the lungs and liver, changes in the gut’s bacteria, and changes in how the body processes fats and hormones.

Many studies have shown that microplastics can cause inflammation in the human body. One lab study found that very small particles made of low-toxicity materials like polystyrene can trigger inflammation because of their large surface area. Another study found signs of inflammation and leftover material in human joints from polyethylene used in medical implants, such as knee or hip replacements.

Lab studies also found that certain polystyrene nanoparticles can cause oxidative stress, cell death, and a type of cell breakdown called autophagy, depending on the situation. However, no major harm was seen in the livers, intestines, lungs, hearts, or other organs of mice after they were given a mix of microplastics to eat.

Recent research shows that microplastics and nanoplastics can harm how cells use energy in both lab and living organism tests. When human lung cells were exposed to tiny, negatively charged polystyrene nanoparticles, certain ion channels in the cells became active, causing changes in electrical currents and the movement of ions. In another test, 30 nm polystyrene nanoparticles caused large, bubble-like structures in cells, which blocked the movement of materials inside the cells and led to the formation of cells with two nuclei.

An article from Stanford Medicine reported that microplastics are found throughout the human body and are always present, even in babies. They have been found in the brain, heart, and bodily fluids like urine. Early evidence suggests these particles may be harmful, as they are linked to inflammation, immune system issues, tissue damage, digestion problems, and breathing problems. A 2024 study found that people with microplastics in their artery plaque had a higher risk of heart attacks, strokes, and death. Recent research also shows that microplastics can change how genes work, which might lead to blood vessel disease and long-term health issues.

Prevention

Some dust control methods include covering cutting areas with tarps, cutting inside protective tents, and using vacuum bags on power tools when working with materials like Trex and Azek. These methods are not expensive. Street sweeping can also help reduce pollution by collecting dirt and debris from construction, renovation, and rebuilding projects such as road tunnels, bridges, roads, and buildings.

Some researchers suggest burning plastics to create energy, a process called energy recovery. This method uses the energy stored in plastics instead of letting it escape into the air in landfills. However, unlike recycling, this process does not reduce the total amount of plastic produced. Therefore, recycling is often seen as a better solution.

Biodegradation is another way to address microplastic waste. In this process, microorganisms use enzymes to break down synthetic plastics. Once broken down, the plastics can be used for energy or as a carbon source. These microbes might also help treat sewage wastewater, reducing the amount of microplastics that enter natural environments.

Removing microplastics through wastewater treatment is important to stop them from moving into natural water systems. However, microplastics collected during treatment often become part of sludge, which is sometimes used as farm fertilizer. This can cause microplastics to enter waterways through runoff.

Fionn Ferreira, a 2019 Google Science Fair winner, is creating a device that uses ferrofluid to remove microplastics from water.

The Ocean Cleanup, a Dutch organization, has proposed plans to remove 90% of ocean microplastics. However, many experts criticize the project because it only targets large plastics (larger than 2 cm, which are not classified as microplastics), is not technically feasible, and only collects plastic from the top 3 meters of water, where most microplastics are not found.

Some bacteria naturally break down plastic, and scientists have modified certain bacteria to eat specific types of plastic. Other microbes have been engineered to trap microplastics in their biofilm, making it easier to remove them. These microplastics can later be released using a special mechanism for recovery.

Absorption devices, such as sponges made from cotton and squid bones, may be useful for cleaning water in large projects.

Microplastics are hard to detect because they are so small. Traditional methods include counting them under a microscope and identifying their type using Raman microspectrometry. Scientists have also engineered microbes to detect microplastics by activating a glowing protein.

However, methods to detect micro- and nanoplastics are not fully standardized. Differences in sampling and analysis can affect results. For example, using larger mesh sizes during sampling may miss smaller particles, leading to inaccurate measurements. Variations in how samples are prepared and measured can also cause differences in results between laboratories.

Educating people about recycling is another way to reduce microplastic pollution. While this is a smaller solution, it can help reduce littering, especially in cities with high plastic waste. Increasing recycling efforts could create a cycle of reuse, reducing waste and the need for new raw materials. To do this, governments would need better recycling infrastructure and technology to recycle smaller plastics.

In April 2013, Italian artist Maria Cristina Finucci created The Garbage Patch State under UNESCO and the Italian Ministry of the Environment to raise awareness about plastic pollution.

In February 2013, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) started the "Trash-Free Waters" initiative to stop single-use plastics from entering waterways and oceans. By 2018, the EPA worked with the United Nations and the Peace Corps to clean up the Caribbean Sea. The EPA also funded projects in the San Francisco Bay Area to reduce single-use plastics on university campuses.

The Florida Microplastic Awareness Project (FMAP) is a group of volunteers who test coastal water samples for microplastics. Many organizations work to reduce microplastic pollution and spread awareness. Global efforts aim to meet the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14, which seeks to reduce marine pollution by 2025.

The Clean Oceans Initiative, launched in 2018 by the European Investment Bank, Agence Française de Développement, and KfW Entwicklungsbank, aimed to provide up to €2 billion in funding by 2023 to remove pollution from waterways before it reaches the ocean. The program focuses on reducing macroplastics and microplastics in rivers and coastal areas. Additional partners joined in 2020, and by December 2023, the initiative had funded nearly €3.2 billion, helping over 20 million people through projects in countries like Sri Lanka, China, Egypt, and South Africa.

In February 2022, the initiative increased its funding goal to €4 billion by 2025. The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development became a partner in 2023. By early 2023, the program had reached 65% of its goal, spending €2.6 billion on 60 projects across Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Europe.

Policy and legislation

With growing awareness of the harmful effects of microplastics on the environment, groups are working to remove and ban microplastics from products. One example is the "Beat the Microbead" campaign, which helps reduce plastics in personal care items like lotions and scrubs. The Adventurers and Scientists for Conservation lead the Global Microplastics Initiative, a project that collects water samples to help scientists study how microplastics spread in the environment. UNESCO has supported research and global programs to address the issue of microplastic pollution, which affects multiple countries. These groups will continue to urge companies to stop using plastics in their products to protect ecosystems.

In 2018, China stopped accepting recyclable materials from other countries, which made those countries rethink their recycling systems. The Yangtze River in China adds 55% of all plastic waste that reaches the oceans. Including microplastics, the river carries about 500,000 pieces of plastic per square kilometer.

In 2019, Scientific American reported that China contributes 30% of all plastics found in the ocean.

The European Commission has noted growing concerns about the environmental impact of microplastics. In April 2018, the European Commission’s Group of Chief Scientific Advisors asked for a detailed study of microplastic pollution through the EU’s Scientific Advice Mechanism. A group of scientists from European academies completed the study in January 2019. A report based on this study was shared with the Commission in 2019, which will help decide if new policies are needed to reduce microplastic pollution.

In January 2019, the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) suggested limiting the use of microplastics in products.

The European Union produces about 10% of the world’s microplastics, or around 150,000 tons each year. This is about 200 grams of microplastics per person annually, though amounts vary by region.

The European Commission’s Circular Economy Action Plan requires recycling and reducing waste in key products, such as plastic packaging. The plan aims to stop the use of microplastics in products and includes steps to capture microplastics at every stage of a product’s life. For example, it would look at ways to reduce microplastics from tires and clothing. The Commission also plans to update the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive to address microplastic waste and other pollution. They want to protect the environment from harmful waste in water. A change to the EU Drinking Water Directive was approved to ensure microplastics are regularly tested in drinking water. Countries must find solutions if problems are found.

The REACH restriction on synthetic polymer microparticles became effective on 17 October 2023.

Haiti does not have an organized system for collecting and treating waste, so plastic is often dumped into urban water canals. These canals can break down into microplastics quickly due to high temperatures and long daylight hours. Plastic waste in these waterways flows into Port-au-Prince Bay, harming the environment and increasing risks from pollution and ocean acidification.

In 2012, the Haitian government banned the production, import, sale, and use of polyethylene bags and expanded polystyrene items for food. However, 14 Caribbean countries have banned single-use plastic bags or polystyrene containers.

In 2013, Haiti banned the import, production, or sale of expanded polystyrene items for food again. The government announced in 2018 that officials would enforce this rule by checking for violations.

In 2024, Hong Kong began the first phase of its plastic restriction rules. Videos were made to encourage people to use their own utensils and shopping bags instead of disposable ones. Stores are not allowed to give customers plastic products.

In 2018, Japan passed a law to reduce microplastic production and pollution, especially in water. The law focuses on personal care products like face wash and toothpaste. It also aims to improve education about recycling. However, the law does not include penalties for companies that still use microplastics.

In England, the Environmental Protection (Microbeads) Regulations 2017 banned the production of personal care products with microbeads, such as exfoliants. People who break this law may be fined. If fines are not paid, companies may be stopped from producing until they follow the rules. Legal action can happen if companies ignore the rules.

In the United States, some states have taken steps to reduce microplastic pollution. In 2014, Illinois became the first U.S. state to ban cosmetics with microplastics. At the national level, the Microbead-Free Waters Act of 2015, signed by President Obama in 2015, banned "rinse-off" products like toothpaste and face wash that use microplastics. The law took effect in 2017 for manufacturing and in 2018 for selling products. In 2020, California defined "microplastics in drinking water" to help study their effects on health.

In 2018, the U.S. House of Representatives passed a law to reduce microplastics as part of the Save Our Seas Act. The law supports the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) efforts to clean up and study plastic pollution in the Great Lakes. President Trump approved the law in 2018.

By June 2025, sixteen towns along New Jersey’s coast had passed rules to limit microplastic pollution from construction sites.

Studies debunk

Well-known studies about microplastics have faced many criticisms, and some have been found to have errors or have been proven incorrect. Research about the amount of microplastics in brain tissue has been questioned because fat in tissue might be mistakenly identified as polyethylene, a type of plastic, which could make the results seem larger than they are. Fats in human tissue can also create the same chemical signals as polyethylene and PVC plastics during certain tests, leading to incorrect results. Small particles from standard latex and nitrile gloves coated with stearate salt can fall off during testing. These particles are similar in size and shape to microscopic polyethylene, which can trick infrared light techniques used to detect microplastics. This mistake may cause tests to show more plastic particles per square millimeter in examined organs than actually exist.