The nuraghe, also called the nurhag, is the most common type of ancient large stone building found in Sardinia, Italy. These structures were built during the Nuragic period, from 1900 to 730 BC. Today, the nuraghe represents Sardinia and its unique culture, known as the Nuragic civilization. Over 7,000 nuraghes have been discovered, but archaeologists think there were originally more than 10,000.

Etymology

The structure is originally called a "nuraghe" in Sardinian and Italian. Different languages have variations of the name, such as "nuraghes" and "nuraxis." According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the origin of the word is unclear and debated. Some theories suggest it may be connected to Sardinian place names like Nurra or Nurri, which mean "heap of stones" or "cavity in earth." However, these connections are not fully explained. Another idea that is no longer widely accepted is that the word might relate to the Arabic word "nūr," meaning "light" or "fire."

Some scholars believe the word "nuraghe" could come from the Latin word "murus," meaning "wall," through a process of language change. However, this idea is not agreed upon by all experts. Another theory suggests the word may have roots in an ancient language called Proto-Basque, where "nur" meant "stone." A similar ending, "-ake," appears in older forms of Latin and Greek. A final possibility is that the word "nuraghe" came from the name of an ancient Iberian hero, Norax. In this case, the root "nur" might be linked to the ancient Indo-European root "*nor."

General layout

The typical nuraghe is found in areas where earlier prehistoric Sardinian cultures lived, often near alluvial plains. However, few nuraghes are now located in plains because many were destroyed by human activities like farming, building dams, and constructing roads. The structure looks like a short cone-shaped tower, similar to a medieval tower, and has a vault inside that resembles a tholos.

The walls of the nuraghe have three parts. The outer layer is tilted inward and made of many stone layers. The stones in the lower parts are rough rubble, while the upper parts use smooth, cut stones called ashlar masonry. The inner layer uses smaller stones to create a dome shaped like a bullet, with ashlar masonry used more often here. Between the outer and inner layers is a mix of tiny stones and dirt, making the structure very strong. The weight of the stones, which can weigh several tons each, holds the structure together. Some nuraghes are about 20 meters (65 feet) tall, and the tallest known, Nuraghe Arrubiu, reached 25–30 meters (80–100 feet).

The entrance leads into a corridor with open niches on the sides, which open into a round chamber. A spiral stone staircase, built inside the thick walls, leads to upper floors or a terrace. The staircase was lit by openings called embrasures. Some nuraghes had up to three stacked chambers. In more complex nuraghes, corridors were common, sometimes built with corbelled arches. For example, at Santu Antine, two levels of corbelled arch corridors were built, reaching 27 meters (89 feet) in length.

Today, fewer than 7,000 nuraghes remain standing. Originally, there were more. Nuraghes are most common in the northwest and south-central parts of the island.

Function

There is no agreement about what the nuraghes were used for. They might have been homes for leaders, places for soldiers to stay, meeting halls, religious temples, regular homes, or a mix of these. Some nuraghes are located on hills, which made them good places to watch over important paths. They might have served as both a symbol of importance and a way to protect against enemies.

Nuraghes might have been a symbol of the Nuragic people. Small models of nuraghes have been found at religious places, such as the "maze" temple near Bitti in central Sardinia. Nuraghes might have shown that someone owned the land or that a place was important. Some recent, but not proven, ideas say that Sardinian towns were separate groups that joined together, and the building of these monuments might have been decided by shared agreements about land.

They were not tombs for princes and their families, as some people thought because human remains were found there. The remains were from a later time, such as the Carthaginian and Roman periods. They were also not religious temples, which are now known to have different shapes and types, even in ancient times. They were not burial sites like domus de janas or tumbas de sos gigantes.

In 2002, Juan Belmonte and Mauro Zedda studied the directions and angles of the entrances of 272 simple nuraghes and the central towers of 180 complex ones. The results showed patterns that matched the sunrise at the winter solstice and the Moon’s southernmost rising position. These directions stayed the same over time. The most common angles were around −43° for earlier nuraghes, changing slightly to −45½° for later ones. Zedda thinks the direction points to a star, possibly Alpha Centauri.

Types

Protonuraghes are the oldest type of nuraghe. They look different from the "classical" (tholos-vaulted) nuraghes because they have a sturdier shape. Protonuraghes usually have an irregular layout and do not have the large circular room found in later types. Instead, they are built along one or more corridors or long rooms. Even though they lack a central circular room, they can sometimes be as large as later nuraghes.

This type is known for later additions, possibly because of changes to the original design or for other purposes.

This is the most common type of nuraghe and the most widely found. A single tower, shaped like a cone that is cut short at the top, contains one or more chambers stacked on top of each other, covered by a round, vaulted chamber. The entrance is usually at ground level and leads into a passageway. This passageway connects to the central chamber in front and to a spiral staircase on one side (usually the left), which leads to a terrace or an upper chamber.

In addition to the usual circular rooms, smaller spaces such as niches may be found inside.

A "tancadu" nuraghe (a Sardinian term meaning courtyard) is a later version of the single-tower nuraghe. A second circular building was added to the main tower, connected by two walls. A courtyard was inside the structure, sometimes with a well.

Also called Nuragic royal palaces, polylobed nuraghes are the rarest type. These structures are very complex and often built as a single unit. They look like strong fortresses with several towers linked by tall walls, which may have helped create more usable space or strengthen the central tower. These "large stone castles" were surrounded by extra walls, sometimes with additional towers (called bulwarks).

Notable nuraghes

Nuraghes are listed on the UNESCO World Heritage Site list. Su Nuraxi di Barumini, located in the southern part of the island, was chosen to represent the entire Nuragic heritage. However, one of the tallest and most complex Nuraghes is Nuraghe Santu Antine, found near the village of Torralba in northern Sardinia. Other well-known Nuraghes include those near Alghero (Nuraghe Palmavera), Macomer, Abbasanta (see Losa), Orroli (Nuraghe Arrubiu), Gonnesa (Nuraghe Seruci), and Villanovaforru (Nuraghe Genna Maria).

Date and cultural significance

Nuraghes were built from the middle of the Bronze Age (18th to 15th centuries BCE) until the Late Bronze Age. Some people have suggested that the El-Ahwat structures in Israel might be connected to the nuraghes, but this idea has been disputed. The El-Ahwat structures are dated to either the 12th or 11th century BCE. The only buildings widely accepted as related to nuraghes are the torri (plural of torre) in southern Corsica and the talaiots in Menorca and Mallorca.

According to Massimo Pallottino, an Italian archaeologist who studies Etruscology, the architecture of the Nuragic civilization was the most advanced in the western Mediterranean during this time period, including those in the regions of Magna Graecia. Out of the 7,000 existing nuraghes, only a few have been scientifically excavated.