Paleolithic religions refer to spiritual beliefs and practices that are believed to have developed during the Paleolithic time period. Scientists Andre Leroi-Gourhan and Annette Michelson think that clear signs of religious behavior appeared during the Upper Paleolithic, no later than 30,000 years ago. However, some behaviors, like burial practices that could be linked to early religious traditions, date back to the Middle Paleolithic, as far as 300,000 years ago. These practices coincided with the first appearance of Homo neanderthalensis and possibly Homo naledi.

Religious behavior is considered a key feature of modern human behavior. Scientists have different ideas about when this set of behaviors fully developed. One idea connects the start of these behaviors to a cultural change among early modern humans, which happened when they arrived in Europe 40,000 years ago. Another idea suggests that modern human behavior developed gradually, beginning during the Middle Stone Age. A third theory states that traits linked to modern human behavior were not unique to Homo sapiens but appeared over time among various human groups, including Neanderthals.

Lower Paleolithic

Religion before the Upper Paleolithic period is not certain, and the Lower Paleolithic period has no clear evidence of religious practices. There is no strong evidence of rituals before 500,000 years ago. However, archaeologist Gregory J. Wightman notes that the limits of the archaeological record mean that religious practices cannot be completely ruled out. Early hominins of the Lower Paleolithic, a time long before modern humans (Homo sapiens) appeared, gradually learned to control and manage their emotions as they began working together in groups. Their early ability to cooperate helped form the basis for later social aspects of religion.

Australopithecus, the first hominins, lived before the development of religion. Twentieth-century historian Mircea Eliade believed that even this early group might have had some spiritual awareness. However, modern understanding of Australopithecus cognition does not support the ability to experience spirituality. While Lower Paleolithic hominins are often described as lacking spirituality, some researchers suggest that their behavior might hint at ritual practices as early as Australopithecus. For example, Durham University professor Paul Pettitt studied AL 333 fossils, a group of Australopithecus afarensis found near Hadar, Ethiopia, and suggested they might have been moved to that location as part of a burial practice. Later Lower Paleolithic remains have also been linked to funerary rituals, including cannibalism.

Archaeologist Kit W. Wesler notes that there is no clear evidence in the Lower Paleolithic of the complex cultural behaviors seen in modern humans. However, he mentions findings of Homo heidelbergensis bones at Sima de los Huesos and evidence of cannibalism across regions from Germany to China.

Many skulls found in Lower Paleolithic sites have large parts of their brain cases missing. Some researchers, like Hayden, suggest this might indicate cannibalism with spiritual meaning, comparing it to practices in hunter-gatherer tribes where eating brains had religious significance. Hayden calls cannibalism the simplest explanation for the skull damage. However, other researchers, like Wunn, argue that the damage may be due to natural preservation patterns over time, not ritual. She also notes that cannibalism in Lower Paleolithic humans might be more similar to chimpanzee behavior than to human rituals. In the 2010s, new archaeological methods showed that much Paleolithic cannibalism was likely for food, not religious reasons.

In the Upper Paleolithic period, religion is connected to symbolic art and sculpture. One famous example is the Venus figurines, small carved statues of nude women thought to represent deities, fertility, or ritual objects. Some archaeologists suggest Lower Paleolithic Venus figurines existed, such as the Venus of Berekhat Ram, a scoria with grooves resembling a human body, dated to 300–350,000 years ago. Scanning electron microscopy found the grooves match those made by flint tools of the time. Paul Pettitt argues that while the Venus of Berekhat Ram is not highly artistic, it and other Lower Paleolithic figurines, like the Venus of Tan-Tan, need further study for their implications in understanding early human beliefs. These figurines may have been made by Homo heidelbergensis, whose brain size was close to that of Neanderthals and modern humans.

The end of the Lower Paleolithic saw major changes in thinking and culture. The development of tools like fire, along with human evolution that included a longer childhood and stronger mother-infant bonds, may have led to new cultural behaviors. In the last few hundred thousand years of the Lower Paleolithic, evidence shows hominins began to shape their environment as much as it shaped them. They built wind shelters, collected unusual natural objects, and used pigments like red ochre. These changes were seen in both Homo heidelbergensis and Homo erectus, not just one species. Some researchers see these shifts as the start of a spiritual revolution, while others view them as the beginning of early cultural development. While the full meaning of these changes is unclear, they show an increase in brain power that would eventually lead to religious practices.

Middle Paleolithic

According to André Leroi-Gourhan, the use of pigment shows evidence of spiritual or symbolic behavior because it has no practical purpose. Many pigments have been found in Neanderthal and early modern human sites. One interesting example is a painted mammoth molar from Tata, Hungary, linked to Neanderthals. The front side of the molar was painted with red ochre, while the back showed signs of heavy use. In Blombos Cave, two pieces of ochre were discovered, each with engraved geometric patterns.

Graves are the clearest signs of spiritual behavior because they show the separation between the living and the dead. Archaeologists often look for grave goods, pigment use, or other symbolic behaviors to tell if a burial was for spiritual reasons or for other purposes, like hygiene. Examples of such burials include La Chapelle-aux-Saints 1, Le Regourdou, Shanidar 4, and Teshik-Tash 1.

In many modern societies, such as the Wari' people, eating the flesh of the deceased is practiced to inherit their qualities or honor them. Evidence of similar behavior may also be found in the Middle Paleolithic period.

Ritual cannibalism has been suggested for the Krapina Neanderthals based on three clues: mixing of human and animal bones, broken long bones (to reach the marrow inside), and the lack of a complete skull. Although some scientists disagree, others support this idea, including Mirko Malez, H. Ulrich, and K. Tomić Karlović. Cannibalism has also been noted in Vindija Cave, Moula-Guercy, and possibly in Combe Grenal and Hortus.

Ritual cannibalism has also been found among early modern humans at the Klasies River Caves, where they consumed other anatomically modern humans. Evidence of this was also found at Les Rois, where early modern humans ate Neanderthal flesh.

A skull cult, or skull worship, involved honoring animal or human skulls. This was often part of ancestral worship, where skulls were kept at home to connect with the deceased. The frontal bone of the Krapina 3 cranium has 35 cuts, which may not be from cannibalism but could result from natural processes. At Vindija Cave, only skull and jaw fragments were found, which Mirko Malez believes were intentionally chosen. Cuts and marks on these bones may indicate defleshing.

Many cave bear skulls were found in Middle Paleolithic caves with signs of human activity, leading scientists to think a bear cult might have existed. These bones, mostly from cave bears and sometimes brown bears, were often placed in cave niches or other prominent spots, likely for worship. However, these positions could also be explained by animal or natural activity.

Upper Paleolithic

The Upper Paleolithic period started around 40,000 years ago in Europe and slightly earlier in Africa and the Levant. During this time, people used pigments and practiced burial, and they also created cave art and portable art. This period is known as the time when symbolic expressions and behaviors similar to those seen today fully developed.

According to Richard Klein, the art and burial practices of the Upper Paleolithic are the first clear evidence of an ideological system. Art from this time can be grouped into two main types: cave art, such as paintings, engravings, and reliefs on stone walls, and portable art, which includes small carvings and sculptures.

Although the first evidence of cave art was found in Europe, the earliest known cave art was created in Australia and Southeast Asia. The oldest cave art discovered so far is located on the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia, dating back 45,500 years. It shows a warty pig and hand traces. Famous examples of cave art in Europe include the oldest figurative depictions found in Chauvet Cave, Romuald's Cave, and Fumane Cave. The most famous examples are found in Altamira Cave and Lascaux Cave. Cave art is not limited to Europe, as examples have also been found in Australia and Asia. Non-painted art, such as the Venus of Laussel, which was carved into a limestone wall, also exists.

The idea that art was created simply for beauty was once popular among some archaeologists, but this view is no longer widely accepted. Totemism, another explanation, was also later rejected. If animals were totems, they would not have been shown as injured, and there are no scenes of animals gathered around specific images, which would be expected if they were totems. Some believe the art was part of rituals meant to improve hunting success. By depicting animals, people may have tried to gain power over them. Another idea is that the art was used in magic to increase the number of animals, which were important for survival.

André Leroi-Gourhan believed that these depictions reflected how people understood the natural and supernatural world through symbols related to gender. For example, bison were connected to female values, while horses were linked to male values. These interpretations are based on modern human views and may not reflect the beliefs of people from that time.

Shamanism is another explanation. Caves may have been seen as entrances to the spiritual world, where people could communicate with supernatural beings. Many animals in cave art are not shown as hunted but as part of hunting magic. Their images may have given shamans strength or traits to help them during spiritual experiences. Depictions of half-human, half-animal figures, like the Trois-Frères sorcerer, may represent a spiritual leader connected to animals. Images of women in cave art suggest their involvement in rituals, possibly through dancing or music.

Kozlowski believed that carvings of animals were connected to hunting magic and aimed at improving success. The Venus figurines, which are small statues of women with exaggerated curves, either naked or partially dressed, and often wearing necklaces or bracelets, are found from the Pyrenees to the Don River. These figurines may have represented fertility goddesses linked to life, protection, and rebirth. Other ideas suggest they could be depictions of important women in the tribe or symbols of hope for healthy, well-fed communities.

The Löwenmensch figurine is a sculpture of a human with a lion’s head, dating back 35,000 to 40,000 years. It may have represented a deity.

Upper Paleolithic burials, based on the items found with the deceased, clearly show evidence of spiritual and religious practices. Pigments of many types are found in large numbers at sites across Europe. The graves that best illustrate this are described below.