Qumran ( / ˈ k ʊ m r ɑː n / ; Hebrew : קומראן ; Arabic : خربة قمران Khirbet Qumran ) is an archaeological site in the West Bank controlled by Israel's Qumran National Park. It is located on a dry, flat area made of marl about 1.5 km (1 mi) from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, about 10 km (6 mi) south of the historic city of Jericho, and next to the modern Israeli settlement and kibbutz of Kalya.

The settlement from the Hellenistic period was built during the rule of Hasmonean leader John Hyrcanus (134–104 BCE) or slightly later. Qumran was home to a Jewish group from the late Second Temple period, which most scholars believe were the Essenes. Other Jewish groups have also been suggested. The site was occupied for most of its history until 68 CE and was destroyed by the Romans during the First Jewish–Roman War, possibly as late as 73 CE. Later, it was used by Jewish rebels during the Bar Kokhba revolt. Today, Qumran is best known as the location near the Qumran Caves, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were hidden. These caves are found in steep desert cliffs and beneath a marl terrace. The main excavations at Qumran were done by Roland de Vaux in the 1950s, and additional digs have taken place since then.

Since the 1967 Six-Day War, Qumran has been managed by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority.

History

Since the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered between 1947 and 1956, many excavations have taken place at Qumran. Nearly 900 scrolls were found. Most were written on parchment, and some were on papyrus. Excavators also found cisterns, Jewish ritual baths, cemeteries, a dining or meeting room, debris from an upper floor that some believe was a scriptorium, and pottery kilns and a tower.

Many scholars think the location was home to a Jewish group, likely the Essenes. However, Lawrence Schiffman suggests that the community’s rules, focus on priesthood, and Zadokite heritage point to a Sadducean-related group, either separate from or connected to the Essenes. Others suggest it was not a religious group, proposing ideas such as it being a Hasmonean fortress later turned into a villa or a production site, like a pottery factory.

A large cemetery was found east of the site. In addition to the main cemetery, there are three separate sections, a north cemetery (about 10 minutes from the main one), and a cemetery south of Wadi Qumran. Most graves contain male remains, though some female remains were also found. Some burials may date to the Middle Ages. Only a small number of graves were excavated because Jewish law forbids digging in cemeteries. Over 1,000 bodies are buried at the Qumran cemetery. One theory is that the bodies belonged to generations of people from the community, while another suggests they were moved there because burial was easier in that area than in rocky regions nearby.

The scrolls were found in eleven caves around the settlement, some of which could only be reached through the settlement. Some scholars believe the caves were used as permanent libraries, based on evidence of a shelf system. Others think some caves were used as homes or shelters. Many of the texts reflect common Jewish beliefs and practices, while others describe different or unusual interpretations. Some scholars believe these texts reflect the beliefs of the people who lived at Qumran, possibly the Essenes, or a group seeking refuge for the Zadokite priestly family against the Hasmonean rulers. A letter published in the 1990s explains reasons for forming a community, some of which resemble Sadducean arguments in the Talmud. Most scrolls were hidden in caves during the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), though some may have been placed there earlier.

Discovery and excavation

The site of Khirbet Qumran was known to European explorers in the 1800s. Early explorers focused on the cemetery, starting with de Saulcy in 1851. Before modern methods were used, the first excavations at Qumran were of burials in the cemetery. Henry Poole did this in 1855, and Charles Clermont-Ganneau followed in 1873.

In December 1856, Albert Isaacs, British counsel James Finn, and photographer James Graham visited Qumran. Isaacs described the tower at Qumran as "a tower or stronghold of some kind" because of its high and defensive position. Finn later suggested Qumran might have been "an ancient fort with a cistern."

Between 1900 and 1901, British scholar Ernest William Gurney Masterman visited Qumran several times. He noted that Qumran was built on a high area overlooking the ‘Ein Feshkha Springs and believed the ruins "may have been once a small fortress." Masterman also questioned why a small fort would need a graveyard with over one thousand tombs.

In 1914, Gustaf Dalman visited Qumran and clearly called it a "burg," or fort. Archaeologist Michael Avi-Yonah agreed with Dalman’s identification and published a map showing Qumran as part of a series of fortresses along the southeastern Judean border.

The first Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered by members of the Ta'amireh Bedouin tribe. Full excavations at the site began in 1949 when Roland de Vaux and Gerald Lankester Harding explored Cave 1, the first scroll-bearing cave. A quick survey that year found nothing of interest, but continued interest in the scrolls led to a more detailed study of the ruins in 1951. This study found pottery similar to that in Cave 1, which led to six seasons of excavation at Qumran from 1951 to 1956, led by de Vaux. The most valuable find at that time was three small jars containing over 500 silver coins, found in a room on the west side of the monastery. These coins, called tetradrachmae, were made in Tyre during the first century BCE.

The site had modest Iron Age remains, including a LMLK seal, which led de Vaux to believe Qumran might be the City of Salt mentioned in Joshua 15:62. However, the site might also be Secacah, referenced nearby in Joshua 15:61. Secacah is mentioned in the Copper Scroll, and its water system matches that of Qumran. Excavations showed that Qumran was mainly used from the Hasmonean period until after the destruction of the temple by Titus in 70 CE. De Vaux divided this use into three periods.

De Vaux’s periodization has been challenged by Jodi Magness and Yizhar Hirschfeld.

The site uncovered by de Vaux has two main sections: a main building, a two-story structure with a central courtyard and a defensive tower on its northwest corner; and a secondary building to the west. Excavations revealed a complex water system that supplied water to several large stepped cisterns across the site. Two of these cisterns were inside the main building.

Both the buildings and the water system showed signs of changes over time, with additions, expansions, and improvements. The water channel was raised to carry water to newer cisterns farther away, and a dam was built in the upper part of Wadi Qumran to collect more water, which was brought to the site via an aqueduct. Rooms were added, floors raised, pottery ovens moved, and spaces repurposed.

De Vaux found three inkwells at Qumran (Loci 30 (2) and 31) and more have been discovered since. Jan Gunneweg identified a fourth (locus 129). S. Steckoll found a fifth, reportedly near the scriptorium. Magen and Peleg found a sixth. Excluding the Ein Feshkha inkwell and others with uncertain origins, Qumran has more inkwells than any other Second Temple Period site, suggesting frequent writing activity there.

Roland

Recent archaeological analysis

Most of the small items found during the de Vaux excavations were taken to Jerusalem to help create reports about the Qumran site. However, after Roland de Vaux died, these reports were not completed, and the small items were stored in museum backrooms and forgotten. In the late 1980s, an archaeologist named Robert Donceel studied the de Vaux materials again to help publish the excavation reports. He found artifacts that did not match the idea of a religious settlement, such as "sophisticated glass and stoneware." In 1992, Pauline Donceel-Voute suggested that the artifacts might be from a Roman villa instead. In 2002, archaeologists Minna and Kenneth Lönnqvist shared their studies of the Qumran site, including evidence that some structures had astronomical directions. In 2020, Jean-Baptist Humbert published a report on the French excavations, describing evidence of a decorated frieze, fine columns, and other signs of a wealthy home at Qumran.

The variety of pottery, glass, and large numbers of coins found at Qumran do not fit the idea of a religious community, according to the Donceels. These items suggest trade connections and show that Qumran may have been part of a larger network during the Graeco-Roman period. Rachel Bar-Nathan compared pottery from Qumran to pottery found at Jericho and Masada, suggesting Qumran should be seen as part of the Jordan Valley, not an isolated site. She noted that similar "scroll jars" have been found at Jericho, Masada, and Qalandiya, showing these jars were not unique to Qumran. However, true cylindrical "scroll" jars are rare outside Qumran. Bar-Nathan wrote that these jars were "rare in the Second Temple period." Some jars found at Masada may have been moved from Qumran or the Plain of Jericho.

Many scholars believe the large stepped cisterns at Qumran were ritual baths, supporting the idea of a religious settlement. However, this view has challenges. Qumran’s water supply came only twice a year from rainwater, making water a valuable resource. If the cisterns were baths, the water would become dirty quickly and be rarely refilled. Katharina Galor suggests the cisterns may have had mixed uses, such as both baths and water storage. Israeli archaeologists Magen and Peleg found that clay from the cisterns was used in pottery factories.

The construction of the Qumran aqueduct, which brought water to the cisterns and baths, is an important clue for dating the site. Some scholars argue the aqueduct dates to around 95–90 BCE, during de Vaux’s Period Ib. Coins from Qumran are a key piece of evidence for understanding the site’s history. Roland de Vaux’s 1961 report, published in 1973, shaped much of what is known about Qumran. A list of bronze coins and de Vaux’s field notes were published in 1994 (French), 1996 (German), and 2003 (English). In 2005, Kenneth and Minna Lönnqvist created the first full catalog of Qumran’s bronze coins. In 1955, three silver coin hoards were found at Qumran. The first hoard was published by Marcia Sharabani in 1980, and the other two, found in Amman, Jordan, were published by Kenneth Lönnqvist in 2007.

De Vaux’s excavations uncovered about 1,250 coins (569 silver and 681 bronze) from Qumran, though some coins have been lost or mixed up over time. The large number of coins shows Qumran was highly monetized during the Hellenistic and Roman periods, meaning the people living there were not poor or isolated. Evidence of trade in luxury goods like glass, dated to the 1st century CE, supports this.

The coins found at Qumran suggest the role of money in the economy did not change much between about 150 BCE and 73 CE. Numismatic rules suggest millions of bronze coins must have been used at Qumran. Coins from the Jewish War period (68 CE) show the site was still active until at least 73 CE, when it was likely destroyed. These coins ended with a series minted in 72/73 CE at Ascalon, which sent troops to help the Romans during the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE).

In 73 CE, the Romans captured Masada, a fortress on the western side of the Dead Sea. It is likely Qumran was destroyed around the same time, as the coins found there end with the same Ascalon series. The latest silver coin found in Qumran’s hoards is a Tyre tetradrachm from 9/8 BCE. In 2007, Kenneth Lönnqvist’s analysis of the silver coins suggested the hoards may have been buried between 52/3–66 CE or as late as the early 3rd century CE. The final coin in the hoards was minted in Rome between 206–210 CE, during the reign of Emperor Caracalla.

Lönnqvist’s research suggests the silver hoards may be linked to Roman military campaigns in the region, which were common in the early 3rd century CE. It is also possible the silver coins were part of payments made to Roman soldiers.

Qumran-Essene hypothesis

When de Vaux first proposed that Qumran was a settlement of Essenes, few serious challenges to his idea appeared at first. Although E.-M. Laperrousaz had very different views, most members of de Vaux’s team, including J. T. Milik and F. M. Cross, followed a similar story with small differences. De Vaux’s co-director, G. Lankester Harding, wrote in 1955 that Qumran might have been a place where John the Baptist and possibly Jesus studied. Others, like Henri del Medico, Solomon Zeitlin, and G. R. Driver, suggested different interpretations, but their ideas were not widely accepted. More recently, Lawrence H. Schiffman argued that the Qumran documents suggest a Sadducean religious group, but most scholars believe the Essenes included many different groups. Simon J. Joseph agrees that the Qumran community was part of the Essene movement, influenced by Enoch traditions, and focused on end times and messianism.

In 1960, Karl Heinrich Rengstorf suggested that the Dead Sea Scrolls came from the Jerusalem Temple library, not Qumran, even though they were found nearby. His idea has gained more attention since 1992, when de Vaux’s excavation findings were made public. In 1980, James H. Charlesworth claimed Qumran was damaged during a war around 40 BCE. Jean-Baptiste Humbert, who published de Vaux’s notes, proposed that Qumran might have started as a villa rustica (a type of rural estate), was later abandoned, and then reoccupied by Essenes in the late 1st century BCE. He also suggested the site may have been used by religious pilgrims who could not enter Jerusalem.

Minna Lönnqvist and Kenneth Lönnqvist studied Qumran using archaeology, focusing on how the layout and symbols of the site relate to the scrolls. They argued that the settlement and cemetery were designed based on a solar calendar and connected to an Essene-like group similar to Jewish Therapeutic communities in Egypt. Robert Cargill said the idea that Qumran was a Hasmonean fortress does not conflict with the theory that Jewish sectarians later lived there. He proposed that Qumran was first a fortress, then abandoned, and later used as a communal site by people who created the Dead Sea Scrolls.

Some scholars criticized using the scrolls to interpret Qumran’s remains, arguing the site should be studied independently. Pessach Bar-Adon revived the idea that Qumran was a fortress, using de Vaux’s findings and other excavations to show it was part of a defense system under John Hyrcanus. Norman Golb claimed Qumran was never a sectarian home and that the scrolls came from Jerusalem libraries, hidden by Jews fleeing Romans. In 2022, Dennis Mizzi noted that Qumran’s water system had two construction phases, with the aqueduct built later than the tower, suggesting the site was not always a fortress.

Robert Donceel and Pauline Donceel-Voûte studied small items found at Qumran, like glassware and coins, and argued the residents were wealthy traders connected to Jerusalem, not poor monks. However, other scholars, like J. Magness and Eric Meyers, found little evidence of luxury items. Lena Cansdale and Alan Crown proposed Qumran was a fortified road station and port on a major trade route. Yizhar Hirschfeld agreed Qumran began as a Hasmonean fortress but later became a trading station during the Herodian era. Yizhak Magen and Yuval Peleg studied Qumran’s water system and suggested the site was repurposed as a pottery production center, using clay from the water to make pottery. Their excavations found large amounts of clay at the site.

Archaeological site

• Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small building on the upper left among the trees is the modern Qumran visitor center. The ruins of Qumran are visible just to the right. The settlement was built near the side of a plateau facing the sea. The Dead Sea appears as a fuzzy background. To the far right is Wadi Qumran, a dry stream most of the year. During rare rainfalls, it becomes a powerful stream that has carved the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid-left, the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel provided Qumran with an important water supply. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied most of the Dead Sea Scrolls.

• This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the flat area next to the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 is clearly visible. It is a man-made cave carved into the cliff face. Hundreds of scrolls were found in the cave. It was discovered and opened in the 20th century by a local Bedouin searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs, the upper part of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it flows down toward the wadi floor.

• Coming from the visitor center, one reaches the corner of a tower. To the left is mainly the support structure for the tower, marking the north-western corner of the main building. Ahead is a modern walkway that allows visitors to walk through the site and see parts of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the distance.

• This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building is visible at the top left. The main channel winds through the settlement—here around a round cistern before turning southeast. This round cistern was built during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note the arch in the stone on the central left: this fed water into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.

• Looking west from the tower, a worker's installation may have been the bottom of a kiln or another heated structure. To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can barely be seen as they slope leftward.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther back is the aqueduct that brought rainwater to the settlement.

• Looking south from the tower, a long narrow room is built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux found two inkwells and plastered surfaces he thought were benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, when reconstructed, was 5 meters long, 40 centimeters wide, and 50 centimeters high. These benches (or tables) fell through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux called this room above the "scriptorium" and believed the Dead Sea Scrolls were written there, though not all scholars agree. Most scholars, however, believe some form of writing occurred on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.

• Looking east toward the Dead Sea, this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall divided it into two, making the western half (L56) similar to other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated, and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool used the sloping location efficiently, requiring minimal digging for its size. This pool was built after the Qumran water system was raised, allowing water to be carried farther and increasing storage capacity. The southern end of the main building is visible to the left. Between it and the pool wall is a channel that carried water to other stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.

• Looking southeast, a long narrow room is built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once had pillars, leading de Vaux to think there was a second floor—though no evidence of such a floor was found. De Vaux considered this room a refectory because an adjacent room, called a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. De Vaux believed this pottery was used for communal meals, though some scholars disagree. The size and layout suggest this room was a drying area for clay from nearby evaporation cisterns. Its alignment with the summer solstice supports this theory.

• To the right (south) of #8 is the "pantry." At the southern end of this room, de Vaux found 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he called the "refectory." The southern end of the room was walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be reinforced. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar." Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load-bearing.

• One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing of a stepped cistern on the eastern side of the main building. A crack down the steps marks where the land dropped, likely due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest cistern at Qumran, which was also broken by the same earthquake. Since that cistern was used in a later phase of the site, it is likely this cistern was also damaged then. The dividers running down the steps have been suggested by some scholars to separate people entering and exiting the pool, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) near Jerusalem. However, not all scholars agree. Katharina Galor, who conducted the most complete analysis of the Qumran water system, stated, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the

Criticism

Some writers have said that Israel has spent a lot of money in the area to make the Qumran caves a place that shows a special Jewish heritage connected to Israel.