Reincarnation, also called rebirth or transmigration, is the idea found in some religions and philosophies that the spirit or soul of a living being begins a new life in a different body after the physical body dies. In most beliefs about reincarnation, the soul of a human being is believed to be eternal and does not disappear when the body dies. After death, the soul is thought to move into a newborn baby or an animal to continue living. (The word "transmigration" means the movement of a soul from one body to another after death.)

Reincarnation (called punarjanman in some traditions) is an important belief in Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. In some ways, it is also found in certain groups within Judaism, ancient pagan religions (like Wicca), and among Indigenous peoples of the Americas and Aboriginal Australians (though many of these groups believe in an afterlife or spirit world). Some ancient Greek thinkers, such as Pythagoras, Socrates, and Plato, believed in the soul being reborn or moving to a new body (metempsychosis).

Most groups within Abrahamic religions (like Christianity, Islam, and Judaism) do not believe in reincarnation. However, some smaller groups within these religions, such as followers of Catharism, Alawites, Hasidic Judaism, the Druze, Kabbalists, Rastafarians, and the Rosicrucians, do believe in reincarnation. Recent studies have looked at how different religious groups, both in the past and today, have viewed reincarnation. These studies include beliefs from traditions like Neoplatonism, Orphism, Hermeticism, Manichaeanism, and Gnosticism from ancient Rome, as well as beliefs from Indian religions. In recent years, many people in Europe and North America have shown interest in reincarnation, and some modern books and writings discuss the topic.

Conceptual definitions

The word "reincarnation" comes from a Latin phrase that means "entering the flesh again." Reincarnation is the belief that a part of every human being (or all living things in some cultures) continues to exist after death. This part, such as the soul, mind, or consciousness, is reborn in a cycle of life and death. This cycle may involve being born as a human, animal, plant, spirit, or being in another non-human realm, depending on the culture.

An alternative term for this idea is "transmigration," which means moving from one life (body) to another. This term has been used by modern thinkers like Kurt Gödel and is now part of the English language.

In Greek, the word for reincarnation is "metempsychosis," which means "changing a soul into a new body." This term is linked to the ancient Greek philosopher Pythagoras. Another Greek term, "palingenesis," means "being born again."

Rebirth is an important idea in major Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. These religions use many terms to describe this concept, including "punarjanman" (Sanskrit for "rebirth") and others like "punarāvṛtti" and "nibbattin." These religions believe that reincarnation happens in an endless cycle called "Saṃsāra" unless a person gains spiritual knowledge that ends the cycle. This cycle is seen as a repeated journey through life and death, but it also offers a chance to achieve spiritual freedom through good actions, meditation, and other practices. Spiritual freedom, or liberation, is the highest goal in these religions and is called "moksha," "nirvana," "mukti," or "kaivalya."

In Kabbalistic Judaism, the idea of reincarnation is called "Gilgul" (Hebrew for "cycle") or "Gilgul neshamot" (meaning "cycle of souls"). This belief is found in Yiddish writings among Ashkenazi Jews. According to this view, humans are reborn only as humans unless God chooses otherwise.

History

The origins of the idea of reincarnation are not clearly known. Discussions about reincarnation appear in the philosophical traditions of Ancient India. Greek thinkers before Socrates also talked about reincarnation, and the Celtic druids are said to have taught a belief in reincarnation. Traditional African religions also believe in reincarnation.

The ideas of the cycle of birth and death, called saṁsāra, and the goal of liberation come from ascetic traditions in India that began around the middle of the first millennium BCE. The first written records about reincarnation appear in the Rigveda, Yajurveda, and Upanishads from the late Vedic period (around 1100 to 500 BCE), which is before the time of Buddha and Mahavira. Some scholars suggest that tribes in the Ganges valley or Dravidian traditions in South India may have also influenced early beliefs about reincarnation.

The idea of reincarnation, or saṁsāra, existed in early Vedic religions. The early Vedas mention the idea of karma and rebirth. These ideas are further explained in the early Upanishads, which were written before the time of Buddha and Mahavira. The earliest parts of Vedic texts describe life, followed by an afterlife in heaven or hell based on a person's actions. However, ancient Vedic scholars questioned this idea, arguing that people live different levels of moral or immoral lives, and it would be unfair for people to be judged in an "either-or" way. They introduced the idea that the afterlife should reflect the degree of a person's virtues or vices.

Detailed descriptions of reincarnation appear around the middle of the first millennium BCE in traditions such as Buddhism, Jainism, and Hindu philosophy. Each tradition explains the general idea of reincarnation in its own way.

The Purananuru, a part of Sangam literature (ancient Tamil writings), mentions rebirth and moksha. It describes Hindu rituals for death, such as making riceballs called pinda and cremation. It also states that good souls go to Indraloka, a place where Indra welcomes them.

Surviving texts from ancient Jainism date to after Mahavira, likely from the last centuries of the first millennium BCE. These texts discuss rebirth and karma in detail. Jain philosophy believes that the soul (called jiva in Jainism and atman in Hinduism) is eternal and moves through cycles of rebirth. After death, reincarnation into a new body is said to happen quickly in early Jain texts. Depending on accumulated karma, a soul may be reborn into a higher or lower form, such as heaven, hell, or the earthly realm. No form is permanent, as all beings eventually die and are reborn. Liberation (kevalya) from reincarnation is possible by removing all karmic attachments. From the early stages of Jainism, humans were considered the highest living beings, with the potential to achieve liberation, especially through ascetic practices.

Early Buddhist texts describe rebirth as part of the cycle of saṃsāra, which is a continuous cycle of life, death, and rebirth with no beginning or end. This cycle is also called the wheel of existence (Bhavacakra) and is linked to the term punarbhava (rebirth). Liberation from this cycle, called Nirvana, is the central goal of Buddhism. Buddhist texts state that an enlightened person can remember past lives through deep meditation. In Tibetan Buddhism, texts like the Tibetan Book of the Dead discuss death, an intermediate state called bardo, and rebirth. While Nirvana is the ultimate goal in Theravadin and Mahayana Buddhism, many modern Buddhists focus on gaining good karma and merit to achieve a better rebirth in the next life.

In early Buddhist teachings, the cycle of saṃsāra included five realms: hells (niraya), hungry ghosts (pretas), animals (tiryaka), humans (manushya), and gods (devas). Later traditions added a sixth realm, demigods (asuras).

Early texts from Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism share similar ideas about reincarnation, karma, and the importance of virtuous actions for liberation and future rebirths. All three traditions emphasize virtues such as non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, compassion, and charity.

Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism have different views on reincarnation. Hinduism believes in the existence of the soul (atman or attā), which journeys through reincarnations until it achieves self-knowledge. Buddhism teaches that there is no permanent soul (anatta or anatman) and that liberation (Nirvana) comes from realizing the concept of non-self. Jainism, like Buddhism, is a non-theistic tradition but believes the soul (jiva) exists and is central to the rebirth process. Jainism also values asceticism as a path to spiritual freedom, while Buddhism does not emphasize asceticism in the same way.

Early Greek thinkers discussed reincarnation as early as the sixth century BCE. One early thinker, Pherecydes of Syros (around 540 BCE), considered rebirth. His contemporary, Pythagoras (around 570–495 BCE), became famous for promoting the idea. Some believe Pythagoras studied under Pherecydes, while others think he learned about reincarnation from Orphism, a Thracian religion, or from India.

Plato (428/427–348/347 BCE) wrote about reincarnation in his works, especially in the Myth of Er, where Socrates describes a man named Er who returned to life after death and shared knowledge about the afterlife. Other dialogues, such as the Phaedrus, Meno, Timaeus, and Laws, also mention ideas about the soul returning to a new body after spending time in the intelligible realm. In the Timaeus, Plato suggests that reincarnation itself serves as a reward or punishment for a person's life. In the Phaedo, Plato has Socrates state that life continues after death, though some scholars believe Plato adapted these ideas from Pythagoreanism or Orphism.

Religions and philosophies

According to Buddhist teachings, Gautama Buddha believed in the existence of an afterlife and the process of reincarnation. He taught that other worlds exist beyond the human world, such as different rebirth realms. Someone who believes there is no other world holds a wrong view, as stated in the Majjhima Nikaya i.402, Apannaka Sutta, translated by Peter Harvey.

The Buddha also taught that actions (karma) influence rebirth, and that the cycle of birth and death continues endlessly. Before Buddha’s time, some groups, like the Charvaka school, believed that death ended all existence, with no soul, rebirth, or karma. They claimed that a person was completely destroyed after death. Buddha disagreed with these ideas and supported the belief in rebirth and karma. He argued that denying rebirth and karma could lead to moral irresponsibility and a focus on personal pleasure.

The Buddha introduced the idea of anattā, which means there is no permanent self or soul. Major Buddhist traditions, such as Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana, accept this teaching. These traditions believe in rebirth but reject the idea of a permanent soul that moves from life to life. Instead, they teach that all living beings are made of temporary parts that dissolve at death. Rebirth continues endlessly, causing suffering (duhkha), but this cycle can end through achieving nirvana. This teaching contrasts with Hinduism, which believes a soul exists and connects all lives.

Different Buddhist traditions explain how rebirth happens. One theory suggests that a person’s consciousness (a stream of awareness) continues after death and enters a new life. This process is compared to a flame from a dying candle lighting a new candle. The consciousness in the new life is not the same as the old one but is connected through a continuous stream. This process is influenced by past actions (karma). The main cause of rebirth, according to Buddhism, is ignorance (avijja) about the true nature of reality. When this ignorance is removed, rebirth ends.

Buddhist traditions also differ in details about rebirth. Theravada Buddhists believe rebirth happens immediately after death. Tibetan and some Chinese and Japanese traditions believe in an intermediate state called the bardo, which can last up to 49 days. This concept includes descriptions of peaceful and wrathful deities and is explained in texts like The Tibetan Book of the Dead. All major traditions agree that rebirth depends on past karma and that there are six realms where a being may be reborn.

In Japanese Zen, some people accept reincarnation, while others reject it. A difference exists between "folk Zen," which includes beliefs in supernatural elements like rebirth, and "philosophical Zen," which focuses more on the present moment.

Some Buddhist schools believe that karma remains with a person until it is resolved. The Sautrantika school compares actions to seeds that grow later. Tibetan Buddhism emphasizes the mental state at the time of death, believing that a peaceful mind leads to a better rebirth, while a troubled mind leads to a worse one.

A 2009 Pew Forum survey found that 22% of American Christians believe in reincarnation. A 1981 survey showed that 31% of European Catholics who regularly attend church also believe in reincarnation.

Some Christian theologians suggest that certain Bible passages might support reincarnation. For example, Jesus was asked if he was Elijah, John the Baptist, or another prophet. Some, like Geddes MacGregor, argue that Christian beliefs and reincarnation can coexist. However, the Catholic Church and others, such as Norman Geisler, reject reincarnation, stating it is not in line with Christian teachings. In the Bible, Elijah is described as a metaphor for John the Baptist.

N. T. Wright emphasizes the resurrection of the body over the reincarnation of the soul.

Some evidence suggests that Origen, an early Christian thinker, taught reincarnation. However, when his writings were translated into Latin, references to this idea were hidden. St. Jerome wrote that Origen’s book On the First Principles included ideas about souls being reborn and bodies being destroyed. However, the original text of this work is mostly lost, with only fragments remaining in Latin translations.

Reincarnation and science

There is no scientific proof that reincarnation, the idea of being born again after death, is physically real. However, some people discuss whether beliefs about reincarnation can be supported by science or religion. Some researchers in the study of paranormal phenomena claim they have scientific evidence, but others argue these claims are not based on solid science. Carl Sagan, a scientist who doubted many paranormal claims, asked the Dalai Lama, a religious leader, what would happen if science proved reincarnation was false. The Dalai Lama said Tibetan Buddhism would change its beliefs if science disproved reincarnation, but he believed it would be very hard to prove reincarnation wrong. Sagan thought stories about remembering past lives deserved study, but he did not believe they were likely to be true.

Over 40 years, psychiatrist Ian Stevenson from the University of Virginia studied young children who claimed to remember past lives. He wrote 12 books about his findings. In his research, he recorded the children's statements, reports from family members, and details about people who had died, including how their injuries might match the children's birthmarks or scars. He also used medical records, such as photos from autopsies, in his work. Because claims about past lives can be questioned as false memories or hoaxes, Stevenson expected people to doubt his findings. He looked for evidence that could prove his research wrong and considered other explanations, but he often concluded that no normal explanation fit the cases.

Carl Sagan praised Stevenson's work in his book The Demon-Haunted World, calling it carefully collected evidence, even though he did not believe reincarnation was the best explanation for the stories. Another writer, Sam Harris, mentioned Stevenson's research in The End of Faith as part of evidence suggesting psychic abilities might exist.

Stevenson's work has been criticized. For example, philosopher Paul Edwards said Stevenson's accounts were based on personal stories and not enough scientific testing. Edwards argued that the stories might result from people's beliefs, suggestions, or false memories, not actual past lives. He also said reincarnation conflicts with modern science because no known process allows a person's identity to survive death and move to another body. Keith Augustine, another critic, noted that most of Stevenson's cases came from cultures where reincarnation is widely believed, suggesting cultural influence, not past lives, might explain the claims.

Some researchers, like Ian Wilson, pointed out that many of Stevenson's cases involved poor children claiming to remember wealthy lives or high social status. In these cultures, stories of reincarnation have sometimes been used to gain money from richer families.

Stevenson also claimed some cases showed evidence of xenoglossy, where people speak a language they never learned. However, linguist Sarah Thomason, who studied these cases, said the evidence was not strong enough to support the claims.

Other researchers, such as Jim B. Tucker, Antonia Mills, Satwant Pasricha, Godwin Samararatne, and Erlendur Haraldsson, have studied similar topics, but Stevenson's work is the most widely known.

Some people who believe in reincarnation rely on memories of past lives retrieved through hypnosis, a practice popularized by psychiatrist Brian Weiss. Weiss claims he has helped over 4,000 patients since 1980. However, these memories often include errors from modern culture, books, or common beliefs about history. Studies show that believing in reincarnation and the hypnotist's suggestions are the main factors in the memories people report. Hypnosis and leading questions can make people more likely to create false memories. These memories may come from mixing real experiences with imagination or guidance from the hypnotist, making them hard to distinguish from real memories.

Past-life regression, the practice of using hypnosis to explore past lives, has been criticized as unethical. It lacks scientific support and can increase the risk of false memories. Luis Cordón, a researcher, said this practice can create delusions that feel real, even though they are not. The American Psychological Association has called past-life regression unethical as a therapy method because it can harm people by causing false memories. Gabriel Andrade, another researcher, said the practice violates the rule of "do no harm," a principle in medicine.