Shanidar Cave is an ancient site located on Bradost Mountain, part of the Zagros Mountains in the Erbil area of the Kurdistan Region in northern Iraq. In 1953, remains of Neanderthals were found here, including Shanidar 1, who lived with several injuries that may have been cared for by others in their group. Another discovery, Shanidar 4, is known for what is called the "flower burial," where pollen was found near the remains. This pollen might have come from flowers placed intentionally. Before this discovery, Cro-Magnons, the earliest known humans in Europe, were the only group believed to perform ritualistic burials. However, some scientists have questioned this, suggesting the pollen may have come from natural causes, such as bees gathering near the burial site.
Archaeology
The Shanidar Cave is located near Barzan, about 0.5 miles (800 meters) from the Great Zab River, and sits at an elevation of 2,100 feet (640 meters) above sea level. The cave’s entrance is triangular, with a portal that is 82 feet (25 meters) wide and 26 feet (7.9 meters) high. The cave itself measures 130 feet (40 meters) long, 175 feet (53 meters) wide, and 45 feet (14 meters) high.
Anthropologist Ralph Solecki, who was part of the University of Michigan Expedition to the Near East, first explored the site in 1951 with a sounding. He returned in 1953, with support from the Directorate General of Antiquities of Iraq and the Smithsonian Institution, for another sounding. In 1953, the first human remains were discovered. These remains are believed to be those of a Neanderthal infant from the Mousterian era of the Middle Paleolithic period.
In the 1956–57 season, Solecki and his team conducted soundings at two nearby village sites and continued work at the Shanidar Cave. Three Neanderthal unfossilized skeletons were found at the cave. One was nearly complete (Shanidar I – field catalog no. 504 III), one was fragmentary (Shanidar III – field catalog no. 384 III), and for one only the skull was excavated at that time (Shanidar II – field catalog no. 618 III). Archaeologists also found Neolithic remains of an infant and a female adolescent, buried with grave goods. These individuals are thought to be a mother and her child, who may have died during childbirth or from a postpartum infection. Explosives were frequently used during these excavations, with up to eight sticks used at a time.
During the 1960 season, a largely complete adult Neanderthal skeleton was recovered (Shanidar IV). This skeleton was more fragile than earlier specimens. While extracting it, the bones of another Neanderthal specimen, or possibly two, were noted and tentatively labeled Shanidar VI. The former was assumed to be male, and the latter female, based on size. The remains of one adult Neanderthal male, which were badly damaged and scattered, were labeled Shanidar V.
After the field material was processed and analyzed, more Neanderthal remains were identified. Shanidar 9 was an infant represented only by vertebrae. These remains were discovered during the removal of Shanidar 4 when encasing it in a sediment block and transporting it to the Baghdad Museum. Shanidar 8 was an adult with a partial, fragmentary skeleton. Shanidar 6 and 7 were fragmentary remains of skulls, teeth, and partial skeletons. Shanidar 1, 2, 3, 5, and 7 were found as individual burials, while other remains were found in a single compressed block.
Overall, these excavations uncovered the remains of seven adult and two infant Neanderthals, dating from about 65,000–35,000 years ago. These individuals were found in a Mousterian layer (layer D), overlaid by a Baradostian culture layer (layer C), a Mesolithic Zarzian layer (layer B), and a Holocene Neolithic layer (layer A), along with various stone tools and animal remains. The cave also contains two later proto-Neolithic cemeteries. One dates back to about 10,600 BCE and includes 35 individuals, which Solecki associated with the Natufian culture. In 2018, remains labeled Shanidar-11 and Shanidar-12 were discovered.
Investigations were conducted from 2014 to 2015 under the guidance of the Kurdistan Directorate of Antiquities. The remains found in the Shanidar Cave are being reexamined to study the mortuary practices of Neanderthals who lived in the area. Signs of activity with the remains after death include the unnatural positioning of the skull and mandible of Shanidar 1. Further studies of other sites will help understand these practices. Additional research on faunal remains from Layer D at the University of Chicago is analyzing butchery activity. Many remains show cut marks caused by flint items, which are linked to butchery practices.
Neanderthal remains
The ten Neanderthals found at the site were located in a Mousterian layer that also included hundreds of stone tools, such as points, side-scrapers, and flakes, as well as bones from animals like wild goats and spur-thighed tortoises.
The first nine Neanderthals (Shanidar 1–9) were discovered between 1957 and 1961 by Ralph Solecki and a team from Columbia University. The skeleton of Shanidar 3 is now kept at the Smithsonian Institution. The other skeletons (Shanidar 1, 2, and 4–8) remained in Iraq but may have been lost during the 2003 invasion. However, casts of these remains are preserved at the Smithsonian. In 2006, Melinda Zeder found leg and foot bones from a tenth Neanderthal while sorting faunal bones at the Smithsonian. This individual is now known as Shanidar 10.
Shanidar 1 was an elderly male Neanderthal, referred to as "Nandy" by the excavators. He was between 30 and 45 years old. His brain size was about 1,600 cm³, and he was approximately 5 feet 7 inches (170 cm) tall. He had severe physical deformities. He was one of four reasonably complete skeletons found in the cave that showed signs of trauma-related injuries, which would have made daily life very painful for him.
During his lifetime, he suffered a severe blow to the left side of his face, causing a fracture in his left eye socket that likely left him blind in one eye. His teeth showed unusual wear, and changes to his incisors and a flattened bone indicated a degenerative disease. Analysis also showed that both of his ear canals were blocked by bony growths, leading to significant hearing loss. His right arm was withered and had been fractured in multiple places. A fracture in his C5 vertebra may have caused damage to his right arm muscles, leading to the loss of his lower arm and hand. This loss may have been due to a birth defect, childhood illness, or an amputation later in life. A sharp point on his right humerus suggests the possibility of an amputation. If true, this would be one of the earliest examples of surgery on a living person. The injury may have caused partial paralysis on his right side, leading to deformities in his legs and feet. Studies show he had two broken legs, which would have caused him to walk with a painful limp. These injuries suggest he may not have been able to care for himself in a Neanderthal society.
More recent research by Erik Trinkaus and Sébastien Villotte found that bony growths in his ear canals caused significant hearing loss. These growths support a diagnosis of diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH), also known as Forestier’s disease. This condition is rare in ancient human remains, making Shanidar 1 the oldest known hominin with this disease. Researchers found evidence of these bone growths in multiple parts of his skeleton.
Shanidar 1 lived for a long time after his injuries, as shown by the healing of his wounds. If Neanderthals performed surgery on him, it suggests their methods were effective. His survival also indicates that Neanderthals may have provided care for individuals with disabilities. Paleontologist Erik Trinkaus suggests that Shanidar 1 may have been helped by others to survive, as his injuries likely made it difficult for him to support his family. His survival could imply that he held a high social status or had valuable knowledge.
These findings suggest that Neanderthals may have shown altruistic behavior, such as helping others in need. The discovery of stone tools near the remains indicates that Neanderthals had the intelligence to create tools that made daily life easier. Their cognitive abilities may have included traits like empathy or compassion, similar to those of modern humans.
Shanidar 2 was a male Neanderthal around 30 years old who suffered from mild arthritis. He was found lying on his right side. He was about 5 feet 2 inches (157 cm) tall, slightly shorter than the average male Neanderthal. He died when rocks fell from the cave ceiling, crushing his skull and bones. His skull was compressed by about 5–6 cm (2.0–2.4 in). Much of his bones were missing when discovered, and his left tibia had tooth marks, suggesting scavengers may have fed on his remains. A small pile of stones and worked stone points (made of chert) were found on his grave, along with evidence of a large fire. These details suggest a ritual burial.
Shanidar 2 had a "higher cranial vault" and other skull features that did not match the average Neanderthal skull. This may indicate that the Neanderthals at Shanidar had skull shapes more similar to modern humans or that the group was highly diverse. These findings show similarities between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens but do not confirm a direct relationship between the two species.
Shanidar 3 was a male Neanderthal aged 40–50 years, found in the same grave as Shanidar 1 and 2. He died from complications of a stab wound to his left 9th rib. Bone growth around the wound suggests he lived for several weeks after the injury with the object still embedded. The wound was not self-inflicted and may have been caused by a sharp object, possibly a projectile. This would be the earliest known example of interpersonal or interspecies violence in the human fossil record. Shanidar 3 also had a degenerative joint disorder in his foot, likely caused by a fracture or sprain, which would have limited his movement and caused pain. His skeleton is displayed at the Hall of Human Origins at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C.
Shanidar 4 was an adult male Neanderthal aged 30–45 years, discovered by Solecki in 1960 in a partial fetal position on his left side. For many years, his remains were thought to provide evidence of a Neanderthal burial ritual. Soil samples taken around his body for pollen analysis later revealed additional information about the site’s environment