Shanidar Cave is an archaeological site located on Bradost Mountain in the Zagros Mountains within the Erbil Governorate of the Kurdistan Region in northern Iraq. Neanderthal remains were found here in 1953, including Shanidar 1, who lived with several injuries, possibly because others in his group helped him, and Shanidar 4, a famous but not certain "flower burial," where pollen has been suggested to be the remains of flowers placed there on purpose. Before this discovery, Cro-Magnons, the earliest known humans in Europe, were the only group known to perform burials with purpose or rituals. However, some scientists think the pollen over the burial might have come from natural causes, like bees collecting it.

Archaeology

The Shanidar Cave is located near Barzan, about 0.5 miles (800 meters) from the Great Zab River, and at an elevation of 2,100 feet (640 meters) above sea level. The cave’s entrance is triangular, with a width of 82 feet (25 meters) and a height of 26 feet (7.9 meters). The cave is 130 feet (40 meters) long, 175 feet (53 meters) wide, and 45 feet (14 meters) high.

Anthropologist Ralph Solecki, who was part of the University of Michigan Expedition to the Near East, first explored the site in 1951. He returned in 1953, with support from the Directorate General of Antiquities of Iraq and the Smithsonian Institution, for another excavation. In 1953, the first human remains were discovered. These were believed to be the bones of a Neanderthal infant from the Mousterian era of the Middle Paleolithic period.

In 1956–57, Solecki and his team conducted excavations at two nearby village sites and continued work at the Shanidar Cave. Three Neanderthal skeletons were found at the cave. One was nearly complete (Shanidar I – field catalog no. 504 III), one was broken (Shanidar III – field catalog no. 384 III), and for one, only the skull was found at that time (Shanidar II – field catalog no. 618 III). Archaeologists also found the remains of a Neolithic infant and a female adolescent, buried with items. These two individuals are thought to be a mother and her child, who may have died during childbirth or from an infection after giving birth. Explosives, up to eight sticks at a time, were used during these excavations.

In 1960, a mostly complete adult Neanderthal skeleton was found (Shanidar IV). This skeleton was more fragile than earlier ones. During the excavation, bones of another Neanderthal, or possibly two, were noted and labeled as Shanidar VI. The first was believed to be male, and the second female, based on size. The remains of one adult Neanderthal male, which were badly damaged, were labeled Shanidar V.

After the remains were studied, more Neanderthal bones were identified. Shanidar 9 was an infant represented only by vertebrae. These remains were found during the removal of Shanidar 4 when it was placed in a block of sediment and moved to the Baghdad Museum. Shanidar 8 was an adult with a partial skeleton. Shanidar 6 and 7 were skulls, teeth, and partial skeletons, all broken. Shanidar 1, 2, 3, 5, and 7 were found as individual burials, while other remains were found in a single block of compressed material.

In total, the excavations uncovered the remains of seven adult and two infant Neanderthals, dating to about 65,000–35,000 years ago. These individuals were found in a Mousterian layer (layer D), covered by a Baradostian culture layer (layer C), a Mesolithic Zarzian layer (layer B), and a Holocene Neolithic layer (layer A), along with stone tools and animal remains. The cave also contains two later proto-Neolithic cemeteries. One dates back to about 10,600 BCE and includes 35 individuals, which Solecki linked to the Natufian culture. In 2018, remains labeled Shanidar-11 and Shanidar-12 were discovered.

In 2014–2015, investigations were conducted with the help of the Kurdistan Directorate of Antiquities. Researchers are reexamining the remains to study the burial practices of Neanderthals in this area. Signs suggest that the remains were moved after death, as the skulls and jawbones of Shanidar 1 were not in natural positions. Studies of other sites will help scientists better understand these practices. Researchers are also analyzing animal remains from Layer D at the University of Chicago to study butchery activities. Many of the remains show cut marks made by flint tools, which are linked to butchery practices.

Neanderthal remains

The ten Neanderthals found at the site were located in a layer of soil called the Mousterian, which also included hundreds of stone tools such as points, side-scrapers, and flakes. Animal bones from creatures like wild goats and spur-thighed tortoises were also present in this layer.

The first nine Neanderthals (Shanidar 1–9) were discovered between 1957 and 1961 by Ralph Solecki and a team from Columbia University. The skeleton of Shanidar 3 is currently displayed at the Smithsonian Institution. The other skeletons (Shanidar 1, 2, and 4–8) remained in Iraq but may have been lost during the 2003 invasion. However, copies of these skeletons are still kept at the Smithsonian. In 2006, Melinda Zeder found bones from a tenth Neanderthal while examining animal bones at the Smithsonian. This Neanderthal is now known as Shanidar 10.

Shanidar 1 was an older male Neanderthal, called "Nandy" by the people who found him. He was between 30 and 45 years old. His brain size was about 1,600 cm³, and he was approximately 5 feet 7 inches (170 cm) tall. He had severe physical deformities. He was one of four Neanderthals whose skeletons showed signs of injuries that made daily life difficult.

During his lifetime, Shanidar 1 suffered a serious injury to the left side of his face, which caused a broken bone in his eye socket. This likely made him blind in one eye. His teeth showed unusual wear, and changes to his incisors and a flattened bone suggested he had a disease that worsened over time. Studies also found that his left ear canal was partially blocked and his right ear canal was completely blocked by bony growths, which likely caused severe hearing loss. His right arm was withered and had broken in multiple places. A broken bone in his neck may have caused muscle weakness in his right arm. His arm healed but resulted in the loss of his lower arm and hand. This may have been caused by a birth defect, illness, or an amputation. Evidence of a broken bone in his upper arm suggests the amputation theory. If his arm was removed, this would be one of the earliest examples of surgery on a living person. His injuries may have caused partial paralysis on his right side, leading to deformities in his legs and feet. He also had two broken legs, which would have made walking painful and difficult. These injuries suggest he may not have been able to care for himself in a Neanderthal group.

More recent research by Erik Trinkaus and Sébastien Villotte confirmed that bony growths in his ear canals caused significant hearing loss. These growths are linked to a condition called diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH), also known as Forestier’s disease. This makes Shanidar 1 the oldest known hominin with clear signs of this condition. Researchers found these bone growths in several parts of his skeleton.

Shanidar 1 lived for a long time after his injuries, as shown by how his body healed. If Neanderthals performed surgery on him, it suggests their methods were effective. His survival with such severe disabilities has led scientists to consider how Neanderthals may have supported individuals with disabilities. Erik Trinkaus believes Shanidar 1 likely relied on others for help because his injuries would have made it hard for him to provide for his family. His survival may indicate he had high social status or valuable knowledge that helped him stay alive.

These findings suggest Neanderthals may have shown kindness or cared for others. Tools found near the site show Neanderthals had the ability to create tools to make life easier. Their intelligence may have included traits like empathy or compassion, similar to modern humans.

Shanidar 2 was a male Neanderthal around 30 years old who had mild arthritis. He was found lying on his right side. He was about 5 feet 2 inches (157 cm) tall, slightly shorter than the average Neanderthal male. He died when rocks fell from the cave ceiling, crushing his skull and bones. His skull was compressed by about 5–6 cm (2.0–2.4 inches). Many of his bones were missing when discovered, and his left leg had tooth marks, suggesting scavengers may have eaten parts of his body. A small pile of stones and worked stone tools (made of chert) were found on top of his remains, along with evidence of a large fire. This suggests he may have been given a ritual burial.

Shanidar 2 had a skull shape that was slightly different from other Neanderthals, with a higher cranial vault. This may indicate that Neanderthals in this group had features more similar to modern humans or that the group was very diverse. These differences show possible similarities between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens but do not prove they were related.

Shanidar 3 was a male Neanderthal between 40 and 50 years old. He was found in the same grave as Shanidar 1 and 2. A wound on his left ninth rib suggests he died from complications after being stabbed with a sharp object. Bone growth around the wound shows he survived for several weeks after the injury, with the object still inside him. The angle of the wound suggests the injury was not self-inflicted but could have been accidental or intentional. Recent research suggests the injury may have been caused by a projectile weapon, which would be the earliest known example of violence between humans or other species. This may have happened during a conflict with early modern humans, who lived nearby around the same time. Shanidar 3 also had a degenerative joint condition in his foot, likely caused by a fracture or sprain, which would have made movement painful and limited. His skeleton is displayed at the Hall of Human Origins at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C.

Shanidar 4 was an adult male Neanderthal aged 30–45 years. He was discovered in 1960 by Ralph Solecki, positioned on his left side in a partial fetal position. For many years, his remains were thought to show evidence of a Neanderthal burial ritual. Soil samples taken around his body for pollen analysis were later studied. Two of these samples contained evidence of plants, which helped scientists learn about the climate and vegetation of the area at the time.