Shanidar Cave is an ancient site located on Bradost Mountain in the Zagros Mountains of northern Iraq, within the Erbil Governorate of the Kurdistan Region. In 1953, remains of Neanderthals were found here, including Shanidar 1, who had several injuries that may have been cared for by others in their group. Another discovery, Shanidar 4, is known for what some call a "flower burial," where pollen was found near the remains. This pollen might have come from flowers placed intentionally on the body. Before this discovery, Cro-Magnons, the earliest known humans in Europe, were the only group believed to perform burials with special meaning. However, some scientists suggest the pollen may have come from natural causes, such as bees collecting pollen nearby.
Archaeology
The Shanidar Cave site is located near Barzan, about 0.5 miles (800 m) from the Great Zab river, and at an elevation of 2,100 feet (640 m) above sea level. The cave’s entrance is triangular, with a portal 82 feet (25 m) wide and 26 feet (7.9 m) high. The cave itself is 130 feet (40 m) long, 175 feet (53 m) wide, and 45 feet (14 m) high.
Anthropologist Ralph Solecki, who was part of the University of Michigan Expedition to the Near East, first explored the site with a sounding in 1951. He returned in 1953, with support from the Directorate General of Antiquities of Iraq and the Smithsonian Institution, for another sounding. The first human remains, believed to be those of a Neanderthal infant from the Mousterian era of the Middle Paleolithic period, were discovered in 1953.
During the 1956–57 season, Solecki and his team conducted soundings at two nearby village sites and continued work at the Shanidar Cave. Three Neanderthal unfossilized skeletons were found at the cave. One was nearly complete (Shanidar I – field catalog no. 504 III), one was fragmentary (Shanidar III – field catalog no. 384 III), and one had only the skull excavated at that time (Shanidar II – field catalog no. 618 III). Archaeologists also uncovered the Neolithic remains of an infant and a female adolescent, buried with grave goods. These individuals are believed to represent a mother and her child, who may have died during childbirth or due to a postpartum infection. Explosives, up to eight sticks at a time, were used during these excavations.
In 1960, a largely complete adult Neanderthal skeleton was recovered (Shanidar IV). This skeleton was more fragile than earlier specimens. During extraction, the bones of another Neanderthal specimen, or possibly two, were noted and temporarily named Shanidar VI. One was presumed male and the other female based on size. The remains of one adult Neanderthal male, which were badly damaged and scattered, were designated Shanidar V.
After the field material was processed and analyzed, additional Neanderthal remains were identified. Shanidar 9 was an infant represented only by vertebrae. These remains were discovered during the removal of Shanidar 4 when it was encased in a sediment block and transported to the Baghdad Museum. Shanidar 8 was an adult with a partial, fragmentary skeleton. Shanidar 6 and 7 included skulls, teeth, and partial skeletons, all fragmentary. Shanidar 1, 2, 3, 5, and 7 were found as individual burials, while other remains were found in a single compressed block.
Overall, these excavations uncovered the remains of seven adult and two infant Neanderthals, dating from around 65,000–35,000 years ago. These individuals were found in a Mousterian layer (layer D), overlaid by a Baradostian culture layer (layer C), a Mesolithic Zarzian layer (layer B), and a Holocene Neolithic layer (layer A), along with various stone tools and animal remains. The cave also contains two later proto-Neolithic cemeteries, one dating back about 10,600 BCE and containing 35 individuals, which Solecki associated with the Natufian culture. Additionally, in 2018, remains labeled Shanidar-11 and Shanidar-12 were discovered.
Investigations were conducted in 2014–2015 with support from the Kurdistan Directorate of Antiquities. The remains found in the Shanidar Cave are being reexamined to study the mortuary practices of the Neanderthals who lived in the area. Evidence suggests that the positions of the skull and mandible of Shanidar 1 were not natural. Further studies of other sites will help understand the treatment of remains after death. Additional research is being conducted on the faunal remains in Layer D at the University of Chicago to analyze butchery activity. Many remains show cut marks caused by flint tools, which indicate butchery practices.
Neanderthal remains
The ten Neanderthals found at the site were located in a Mousterian layer that also included hundreds of stone tools, such as points, side-scrapers, flakes, and bones from animals like wild goats and spur-thighed tortoises.
The first nine Neanderthals (Shanidar 1–9) were discovered between 1957 and 1961 by Ralph Solecki and a team from Columbia University. The skeleton of Shanidar 3 is now kept at the Smithsonian Institution. The other skeletons (Shanidar 1, 2, and 4–8) remained in Iraq but may have been lost during the 2003 invasion. However, casts of these remains are still at the Smithsonian. In 2006, while organizing a collection of bones from the site, Melinda Zeder found leg and foot bones from a tenth Neanderthal, now called Shanidar 10.
Shanidar 1 was an elderly male Neanderthal, known as "Nandy" by the people who found him. He was between 30 and 45 years old. His brain size was about 1,600 cm³, and he was approximately 5 feet 7 inches (170 cm) tall. He had severe physical deformities. He was one of four nearly complete skeletons found in the cave that showed injuries related to trauma, which would have made daily life very painful for him.
During his life, he suffered a serious blow to the left side of his face, causing a broken bone in his eye socket, which likely left him blind in one eye. His teeth showed unusual wear, and changes to his incisors and a flattened bone indicated he may have had a degenerative disease. His left ear canal was partially blocked, and his right ear canal was completely blocked by growths, which likely caused severe hearing loss. He also had a withered right arm that had been broken in several places. A fracture in his C5 vertebra may have damaged the muscles in his right arm, leading to the loss of his lower arm and hand. This loss may have been due to a birth defect, childhood illness, or an amputation later in life. A sharp point from a broken bone in his right upper arm suggests the amputation theory. If his arm was amputated, this would be one of the earliest examples of surgery on a living person. His injury may have caused partial paralysis on his right side, leading to deformities in his legs and feet. Studies show he had broken both legs, which would have made walking very painful and difficult. These injuries suggest he may not have been able to care for himself in a Neanderthal society.
More recent research by Erik Trinkaus of Washington University and Sébastien Villotte of the French National Centre for Scientific Research confirmed that bony growths in his ear canals caused significant hearing loss. These growths are linked to a condition called diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH), also known as Forestier’s disease. This would make Shanidar 1 the oldest known hominin with clear signs of this condition. Researchers found these bone growths in multiple parts of his partial skeleton.
Evidence shows that Shanidar 1 lived for a long time after his injuries. If Neanderthals performed surgery on him, it suggests their methods were effective in helping him survive. His long life with serious disabilities has led scientists to consider how Neanderthals may have supported individuals with severe injuries. Paleontologist Erik Trinkaus believes Shanidar 1 likely received help from others to survive, as his injuries would have made it difficult for him to care for himself or his family. His survival may indicate he had a high social status or valuable knowledge that made others want to help him.
These findings have also led to questions about whether Neanderthals showed acts of kindness or had a sense of community. The discovery of stone tools near these remains shows Neanderthals had the intelligence to create tools that made life easier. Their ability to make tools suggests they may have had complex thoughts, such as empathy or a sense of meaning in life, similar to modern humans.
Shanidar 2 was a male Neanderthal around 30 years old who suffered from mild arthritis. He was found lying on his right side. He was about 5 feet 2 inches (157 cm) tall, which is slightly shorter than the average Neanderthal male. He died when rocks fell from the cave ceiling, crushing his skull and bones. His skull was compressed by about 5–6 cm (2.0–2.4 in). Much of his bones were missing when found, and his left shin had tooth marks, suggesting scavengers may have eaten parts of his body. Evidence of a ritual burial includes a small pile of stones with worked stone points (made from chert) placed on top of his remains, as well as a large fire near his burial site.
Shanidar 2 had a skull shape that was slightly different from typical Neanderthal skulls, with a higher cranial vault. This may suggest that the Neanderthals at Shanidar had features more similar to modern humans or that the group was very diverse. This finding highlights possible similarities between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens but does not prove a direct relationship between the two species.
Shanidar 3 was a male Neanderthal aged 40–50 years old, found in the same grave as Shanidar 1 and 2. A wound on his left 9th rib suggests he died from complications after being stabbed by a sharp object. Bone growth around the wound shows he lived for several weeks after the injury with the object still inside his body. The angle of the wound suggests the injury was not self-inflicted but may have been accidental or intentional. Recent research suggests the injury could have been caused by a long-range projectile, making this the earliest known example of interpersonal or inter-species violence in the human fossil record. The presence of early-modern humans in western Asia around the same time, possibly using projectile weapons, has led to speculation that this injury may have resulted from conflict between species. However, Neanderthals also used spears as projectiles hundreds of thousands of years ago. Shanidar 3 also had a degenerative joint disorder in his foot, likely caused by a fracture or sprain, which would have made movement painful and limited. His skeleton is on display at the Hall of Human Origins at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C.
Shanidar 4 was an adult male Neanderthal aged 30–45 years old, discovered by Solecki in 1960 in a partial fetal position on his left side.
For many years, Shanidar 4 was thought to provide evidence of Neanderthal burial rituals. Soil samples collected around his remains for pollen analysis were studied eight years after his discovery. In two of these samples, scientists found traces of plants that may have