Spectral evidence was a type of legal proof based on the statements of people who said they saw visions. This kind of testimony was common during witch trials in the 16th and 17th centuries. People who claimed to be harmed by witchcraft often said they saw ghostly images of specific individuals in their community. These claims were used as proof that the named individuals were witches who had allowed the Devil to take their appearance. If a court accepted this testimony, it was very difficult to challenge. However, spectral evidence was not often used to prove guilt, because religious scholars could not agree on whether the Devil could take the form of an innocent person. The debate over the reliability of spectral evidence became especially important during the Bury St Edmunds witch trial of 1662 and the Salem witch trials of 1692–93.
Bury St Edmunds witch trial
In 1662, two elderly women named Amy Denny and Rose Cullender from Lowestoft, Suffolk, England, were accused of witchcraft during the Bury St Edmunds witch trial. This trial became important because it involved Matthew Hale, a well-known 17th-century lawyer, and set a legal example for how courts might accept evidence based on visions or dreams. A written record of the trial, titled A Tryal of Witches at the Assizes Held at Bury St. Edmunds, was later used by judges during the Salem witch trials in America thirty years later.
Amy Denny and Rose Cullender were accused of harming several neighbors’ children. The children reportedly had fits, could not walk properly, and lost the ability to speak for short periods. Some claimed the children coughed up pins. The main evidence linking the women to these illnesses was the children’s claims that they saw visions of Denny and Cullender threatening them. For example, Samuel Pacy described how his daughters cried out during fits, saying they saw Amy Denny or Rose Cullender. The children would run toward where they believed the women were, pretending to strike them, and sometimes saw them spinning or moving strangely.
Not everyone at the trial agreed that this evidence was enough to prove guilt. Three lawyers, including John Kelynge, raised concerns about the reliability of the testimony. The trial report later changed to credit only Kelynge with this objection. According to the report, Mr. Serjeant Keeling believed the evidence was not strong enough to convict the women. He argued that if courts relied only on the visions of those who claimed to be harmed, innocent people might be unfairly accused.
The judge, Matthew Hale, told the jury they had two questions to answer: "First, were the children truly bewitched? Second, were the accused women guilty of causing this?" Despite these concerns, the jury found Denny and Cullender guilty of thirteen out of fourteen charges. They were sentenced to death by hanging.
Salem witch trials
The Salem witch trials began in February 1692, when four children from Salem, Massachusetts, began having fits and claimed they were "bitten and pinched by invisible agents." William Griggs, a local doctor, examined the children and believed they were "under an evil hand." For over a month, Samuel Parris, the father of one of the affected children, only prayed and fasted. Later, he encouraged the children to name their attackers. The children accused Sarah Good, Sarah Osborne, and the enslaved woman Tituba, saying that they or their spirits had tormented them.
When brought before officials, Good and Osborne denied the charges, but Tituba confessed. She said the devil had forced her to harm the children and that a tall man in black clothes had made her sign her name in a book. Tituba also claimed Good and Osborne were witches and described their "familiars," which were creatures no one else could see. Good’s familiar was a yellow bird, and Osborne’s were two strange creatures. During Tituba’s testimony, the children had fits again, and Tituba claimed to see the spirit of Sarah Good attacking them. All three women were charged and sent back to jail to await trial.
This event started a period of widespread fear and excitement in Salem and nearby towns. Many people were arrested for witchcraft. The children’s accusations and Tituba’s confession influenced later claims against others. People often said they saw the spirits of the accused trying to force victims to write their names in a book. The man in black and the yellow bird were also seen with other accused individuals, such as Martha Corey, Rebecca Nurse, and Sarah Cloyce. Another type of evidence was the appearance of the spirits of the dead, as described by minister Deodat Lawson:
"They affirmed that they saw the ghosts of several departed persons, who, when they appeared, urged them to reveal those who were responsible for hastening their deaths. They threatened to afflict them if they did not tell the magistrates."
In May 1692, a court called the Court of Oyer and Terminer was created to handle these cases. The court struggled with how much weight to give to "spectral evidence," which was testimony about seeing the spirits of the accused. Other evidence, such as claims of spells causing harm, the discovery of poppets, witches’ marks, or unusual strength, was also used, but spectral evidence was the only type available for every case. Of the 156 people arrested before the court stopped meeting in September, 79 were charged solely based on spectral evidence.
Spectral evidence was considered strong because it was assumed the devil could not take another person’s shape without their permission. Deodat Lawson explained this in a sermon, noting that the devil often targets those who appear holy to mislead others. However, Puritan minister Cotton Mather warned that the devil could appear as innocent or virtuous people. He suggested spectral evidence should be considered a sign of guilt but not enough for a conviction.
The first person tried by the court was Bridget Bishop, who was found guilty and executed. This led to a debate among judges, as spectral evidence had played a major role in her conviction. Formal advice was sought from ministers, who wrote a document titled "The Return of the Several Ministers Consulted." They advised caution, stating that spectral evidence alone should not be enough to condemn someone, as demons could appear as innocent people. However, the document also encouraged prosecuting those who broke laws. This mixed message caused confusion.
By September 22, the court had stopped meeting, but 19 people had been hanged, and one, Giles Corey, had been crushed to death. Criticism of the trials grew, and spectral evidence became a major point of controversy. Historian Richard Godbeer noted that, except for confessions, the only direct evidence of witchcraft was the testimony of the afflicted children, which was spectral in nature.
On October 8, Thomas Brattle, a Boston merchant, wrote an open letter opposing the court’s actions. He argued that spectral evidence, which he claimed was the only proof used, was unreliable. He said the judges were listening to the devil and questioned why they trusted testimony from people who claimed to see spirits when their eyes were closed. He called the children’s claims "blind, nonsensical girls" and said they were lying.
Around this time, Governor William Phips returned to Massachusetts from Maine. He had been absent during the trials and later took action to end the court’s proceedings.
Other cases
At the same time as the trials in Salem, spectral evidence was also used in a trial in colonial Rhode Island. In this trial, Thomas Cornell Jr., the son of Thomas Cornell, was found guilty of killing his mother, Rebecca.