Symbolic behavior refers to a person's ability to respond to or use a system of meaningful symbols (Faules & Alexander, 1978, p. 5). The symbolic behavior perspective explains that the reality of an organization is created through communication (Cheney & Christensen, 2000; Putnam, Phillips, & Chapman, 1996). People use symbols and messages to understand their environment and build a shared understanding of reality (Faules & Alexander, 1978; Mills, 2002). When people face uncertainty, they organize themselves based on the reality of their group and act within that shared understanding (Weick, 1995).

History

Symbolic interactionism (SI) is a theory first introduced by Herbert Blumer in 1937. It was based on the ideas from early philosophers and sociologists, including the notes taken by George Herbert Mead’s students during his lectures. Mead, who was born in 1863, taught a course on social psychology. After his death, his notes were written down and published in a book titled Mind, Self, and Society in 1934. Mead’s work helped create the foundation for symbolic interactionism, which explains how individual thoughts develop through social experiences. He described language as a way of communicating using meaningful symbols and ideas, such as the "me" and "I" parts of a person’s identity. These ideas influenced the symbolic behavior perspective, which is closely related to symbolic interactionism. Blumer (1962) explained that symbolic interactionism focuses on how people act based on the meanings they assign to things. These meanings come from interactions with others and are changed through personal understanding. In organizations, symbolic interactionism helps explain how employees develop their sense of self by interacting with coworkers, subordinates, and supervisors. Over time, individuals learn how to behave in a workplace by observing the values, roles, attitudes, and rules that define the work environment (Wood, 1999).

Symbolic behavior perspective viewpoints

The symbolic behavior perspective suggests that people feel unsure when they join an organization. This uncertainty leads them to rely on symbols to understand their new environment (Brown, 1986). To reduce confusion, organizations use symbols to create shared meanings. When individuals interpret these symbols, they act together based on the organization’s culture. Over time, as culture is learned and passed on, a shared understanding of the organization develops (Harris & Nelson, 2008, p. 225). Organizations use symbols to build and keep their culture, allowing managers to explain and maintain the organization’s values as people focus on shared goals (Colvin, 2000, p. F-9). Shared values, which are symbolic, can also help reduce confusion and conflict within an organization (Harris & Nelson, 2008, p. 233). According to Mead’s theory, a social act has three parts: one person takes an action, another person responds, and the outcome shows what the action means for the person who started it (Littlejohn & Foss, p. 160).

Symbolic behavior perspective propositions

The discussion above can be divided into seven main ideas from the symbolic behavior perspective. These ideas, which focus on complexity, uncertainty, organizing, cultural creation, interpersonal reality, group behavior, leadership, and managing differences, are explained below (Harris & Nelson, 2008, p. 222):

• When organizations are complex, they depend more on symbolic messages.
• Uncertainty leads to ongoing organizing efforts.
• Symbolic behavior helps create and keep organizational cultures.
• Symbols form the foundation of how people understand reality in relationships.
• Groups emphasize the importance of symbolic behavior.
• Leadership depends on using symbolic behavior effectively.
• Differences and contradictions are handled through acculturation.

Tools of symbolic behavior

According to Harris & Nelson (2008, p. 237), tools are things that have special meanings for people. These tools can be spoken or unspoken ways of communicating.

Stories/myths: When stories are told again and again, they help people understand how to act. They also show examples of how to behave in the organization.

Titles: Using titles shows how someone fits into the company.

Slogans: Slogans help remember important goals or highlight new goals (Waterman, 1987).

Dress: Clothing shows the company's culture (Remland, 2003). How people dress can affect how others see them (Galin, 1990, p. 51). This means the way a company chooses to dress can influence how it is viewed by others.

Priorities: The goals of a company and how they are handled daily have a big effect. People feel more connected to the company when leaders and workers share the same goals (Harris & Nelson, 2008, p. 238).

Limitations of symbolic behavior

Overusing symbolic actions can cause serious issues. These problems may include unethical behavior, actions that have no real meaning, symbols being used too much, creating differences between people, and others interpreting symbols in ways not intended (Harris & Nelson 2008, p. 239). Blumer explains that in advanced societies, large groups often follow repeated, stable patterns that give shared meanings to members. He warns that new situations may require changes and rethinking how things are understood (Littlejohn & Foss, p. 160).

Unethical groups, managers, or coworkers sometimes use tricks, such as hiding dishonest actions with fake friendliness, giving wrong or confusing safety advice, or offering false reasons for behaviors to gain an advantage (Harris & Nelson 2008, p. 240).

Without clear meaning, people may become trapped in activities that focus on appearance rather than real value (Robbins 1980). Diversity efforts are often criticized for focusing more on numbers from occasional actions than on solving the actual problems with well-planned solutions (Harris, 1997).

Symbolic messages can stop real change or prevent people from responding properly to challenges. Cultures help people feel connected and unified (Tompkins & Cheney, 1983). However, strong values or cultures that are too powerful can lead to problems like becoming outdated, resisting change, and acting inconsistently (Deal & Kennedy, 1982). Strong cultures can force individuals to follow roles and behaviors that match the culture’s messages (Conrad, 1985). Mead described a gesture with shared meaning as a “significant symbol,” showing that once a gesture is understood by everyone, it becomes meaningful (Littlejohn & Foss, p. 161).

Symbols can cause disagreements in organizations. While culture can unite people, symbols used to support the organization may also create separation between individuals and groups. Differences may form between managers and workers, or between different types of workers, leading to a “them versus us” attitude (Harris & Nelson 2008, p. 243).

Symbolic actions can be hard to predict because people interpret them based on their own experiences. This can lead to unintended results (Harris & Nelson 2008, p. 244). Using symbols carefully is important to avoid doing the wrong thing even if the intention was good. A strong sense of pride in an organization can cause employees and managers to act in ways that harm the group (Harris & Nelson 2008, p. 244).

Performances involved in symbolic behavior

A dramatic viewpoint sees people as individuals who act, improvise, interpret, and re-present roles and scripts (Conquergood, 1991, p. 187). The intangible activities that support a service can create a satisfying experience or a performance that justifies a higher cost (Pine & Gilmore, 1999).

Learning to perform appropriate roles is a key part of human development and important for success in organizations (Harris & Nelson, 2008, p. 244). The ability to use meaningful symbols to respond to oneself helps make thinking possible.

Choosing how to appear, such as through clothing, language, facial expressions, or good customer service, sends messages that support a role (Harris & Nelson, 2008, p. 245). Some people are better at saying and doing the right things at the right time, which helps them avoid mistakes in word choice. The ability of individuals and groups to perform roles often determines whether an action is accepted (Pacanowsky & O’Donnell-Trujillo, 1983).

Using verbal and nonverbal symbols to meet the needs of a role leads to a dramatic realization (Harris & Nelson, 2008, p. 246). Ideas like image presentation and impression management are commonly used for these efforts (Lord & Maher, 1991). While there may be concerns about unethical impression management, it can be a helpful tool to gain leadership roles and achieve goals (Hackman & Johnson, 2000, p. 24).

A certain level of mystery is needed to create distance between the actor and the audience (Harris & Nelson, 2008, p. 247).

Types of rituals

Rituals are actions performed repeatedly and include all regular activities (Harris & Nelson 2008, p. 248). These rituals help create a sense of reality within an organization.

Rituals related to joining an organization explain what new members must learn to become official members (Harris & Nelson 2008, p. 248). Socialization is the process of teaching new employees about a company’s rules and expectations. New members often find that old habits and ways of doing things may not work anymore in their new role (Gabriel et al., 2000, p. 16). Many organizations use a clear process to help new members adjust successfully (Harris, 1990).

Once someone is part of an organization, rituals of belonging and exclusion occur (Harris & Nelson 2008, p. 248). Belonging rituals show that a person is being accepted by the organization or workgroup (Harris & Nelson 2008, p. 248).

Organization rites are planned events that have both practical and meaningful purposes (Harris & Nelson 2008, p. 250). In a company, examples include testing for jobs, training programs, and meetings to discuss work agreements. These activities not only help achieve goals but also express important cultural values (Trice & Beyer, 1985, pp. 372–373).

Related theories

The symbolic behavior perspective is closely connected to the symbolic interactionism (SI) perspective. SI is a movement focused on studying how people come together and share meaning. Philosopher Susanne Langer developed a symbol theory that states symbolism is central to philosophy because it forms the basis of all human knowledge and understanding (Littlejohn & Foss, p. 105). Langer believed that while all animals are influenced by feelings, human feelings are shaped by ideas, symbols, and language. Animals react to signs, but humans process signs in a much more complex way. This perspective is also linked to symbolic communication, where studying animal societies helps explain how symbolic communication influences the actions of individuals working together in a group. Symbolic behavior is also connected to the work of American anthropologist Leslie Alvin White (1940), who said, "all human behavior originates in the use of symbols." He believed that human behavior and symbolic behavior are the same. The symbolic behavior perspective is also related to organizational communication and interpersonal relationships, which involve interactions between two or more people and how they collaborate to achieve shared goals.