Teotihuacan is an ancient city in Mesoamerica located in a sub-valley of the Valley of Mexico, in the State of Mexico, about 40 kilometers (25 miles) northeast of modern-day Mexico City. It is famous for its large, well-built pyramids, including the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon. Although it is near Mexico City, Teotihuacan was not built by the Mexica (Aztec people) and existed long before the Aztec Empire. At its peak, around the first half of the first millennium (1 CE to 500 CE), Teotihuacan was the largest city in the Americas. Its population is estimated to have been at least 25,000, but likely reached about 100,000, making it one of the largest cities in the world during that time.
The city covered eight square miles (21 square kilometers), and most people living in the valley lived in Teotihuacan. In addition to its pyramids, the city is known for its multi-family homes, the Avenue of the Dead, and colorful murals that have been well preserved. Teotihuacan also produced and exported high-quality obsidian tools used across Mesoamerica. The city was established around 100 BCE, with major buildings constructed until about 250 CE. It may have continued to exist until the 7th or 8th century CE, but its main monuments were destroyed around 550 CE. Some experts believe this destruction was caused by extreme weather events in 535–536 CE.
Teotihuacan began as a religious center on the Mexican Plateau around the first century CE and became the largest and most populated city in the pre-Columbian Americas. It had multi-story apartment buildings to house its large population. The term "Teotihuacan" is also used to describe the civilization and culture connected to the city. While it is debated whether Teotihuacan was the center of a large empire, its influence across Mesoamerica is well documented. Evidence of Teotihuacano culture has been found in areas such as Veracruz and the Maya region. Later, the Aztecs believed they shared a common heritage with the people of Teotihuacan and adopted some of their traditions.
Scholars are unsure about the ethnic background of Teotihuacan’s people. Possible groups include the Nahuas, Otomi, or Totonac. Some researchers believe the city was multi-ethnic, as evidence shows connections to the Maya and other groups. Many people from different regions, especially Oaxaca and the Gulf Coast, likely lived in Teotihuacan during its peak. After the city’s decline, central Mexico was ruled by smaller powers, such as Xochicalco and Tula.
Today, Teotihuacan is located in the San Juan Teotihuacán municipality in the State of Mexico, about 40 kilometers (25 miles) from Mexico City. The site covers 83 square kilometers (32 square miles) and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. In 2024, it was the second most-visited archaeological site in Mexico, with 1,313,321 visitors.
Etymology
The name Teōtīhuacān was given by the Nahuatl-speaking Aztecs many years after the city fell around 550 CE. This name has been explained as "birthplace of the gods" or "place where gods were born," based on stories from the Nahua people about how the world was created. A scholar named Thelma D. Sullivan suggests the name means "place of those who have the road of the gods," because the Aztecs believed the gods made the universe there. In Nahuatl, the name is pronounced [te.oːtiːˈwakaːn], with the stress on the syllable "wa." Normally, Nahuatl writing does not use an accent mark in this position. Both the Nahuatl pronunciation and the Spanish pronunciation [te.otiwaˈkan] are used. In Spanish, the stress is on the second-to-last vowel, and no accent mark is used if the word ends with a vowel, "n," or "s."
The original name of the city is unknown, but it appears in carved symbols from the Maya region as "puh," meaning "Place of Reeds." This suggests that during the Classic period of the Maya civilization, Teotihuacan was seen as a "Place of Reeds," similar to other cities in Postclassic Mexico named "Tollan," such as Tula-Hidalgo and Cholula.
This naming pattern caused confusion in the early 20th century, as scholars debated whether Teotihuacan or Tula-Hidalgo was the Tollan described in 16th-century writings. It now seems likely that "Tollan" was a general term used by the Nahua people for any large city. In Mesoamerican ideas about cities, "Tollan" and similar terms were metaphors, connecting the bundles of reeds found in the wetlands of the Valley of Mexico to the large groups of people living in cities.
As of January 23, 2018, experts have questioned the name Teotihuacan, suggesting it may have been changed by Spanish colonizers in the 16th century. Archeologist Verónica Ortega of the National Institute of Anthropology and History states that the city was likely named "Teohuacan," meaning "City of the Sun," rather than "City of the Gods," as the current name implies.
History
The first people lived in the Teotihuacan area around 600 BCE. Before 200 BCE, the area had many small villages. At that time, about 6,000 people lived in the Teotihuacan Valley. Between 100 BCE and 750 CE, Teotihuacan became a large city and an important center for government and culture in Mesoamerica.
Teotihuacan's history is divided into four main time periods:
Period I (200 BCE to 1 CE): This time marks the start of a city. Local farmers began to live near the natural water sources in Teotihuacan, which helped the area grow.
Period II (1 CE to 350 CE): Teotihuacan grew quickly and became the largest city in Mesoamerica. People moved there because of volcanic eruptions that destroyed other places and because the city offered economic opportunities. The city’s layout changed to include large housing complexes. Major buildings, like the Pyramids of the Sun and Moon, were built during this time. Around 300 CE, the Temple of the Feathered Serpent was damaged, and the city focused more on building homes for its people.
Period III (350 CE to 650 CE): This is called the classical period. Teotihuacan reached its peak, with about 100,000 people living in the city. It covered 18 square kilometers and had 2,000 buildings. The city was so large that it held about half the people in the Valley of Mexico. Artifacts from this time include funeral masks made of green stone and decorated with turquoise, shell, or obsidian.
Period IV (650 CE to 750 CE): Teotihuacan’s power declined. Signs of fire and conflict were found in the city, and scholars think this led to its fall. Other reasons for the decline include problems with trade, more social classes, and conflicts between leaders. After this, the city was still inhabited but never reached its earlier size.
Scholars are not sure who built Teotihuacan. Around 300 BCE, people from central and southeastern Mesoamerica started living in larger settlements. Teotihuacan was the largest city in Mesoamerica before the Aztecs, about 1,000 years earlier. For a long time, people thought the Toltec built it, but this idea may be incorrect. The word "Toltec" might not always refer to the Toltec people from Tula, Hidalgo.
During the Late Formative era, other cities like Cuicuilco appeared in central Mexico. Some believe a volcanic eruption caused people to move to Teotihuacan. Other scholars think the Totonac people founded Teotihuacan and that the city had people from many cultures, including the Zapotec, Mixtec, and Maya. The people of Teotihuacan used raised farming beds called chinampas to grow crops, which helped feed the city.
There is no clear evidence of a king or ruler in Teotihuacan. Other cities had palaces and symbols of power, but Teotihuacan did not. Scholars think the city was governed by a group of people working together.
In 378 CE, a leader named Sihyaj K'ahk' (meaning "born of fire" in Maya) conquered Tikal, a city 600 miles away. He was supported by other groups and used symbols linked to Teotihuacan. Around the same time, the Spearthrower Owl ruler was connected to Teotihuacan culture.
In 426 CE, a new ruling family began in Copán, now in Honduras. The first king was K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo', and the family had 16 rulers. Soon after, he made Tok Casper king of Quiriguá, a city near Copán.
Teotihuacan reached its peak around 450 CE. It covered over 30 kilometers and may have had up to 250,000 people. Recent studies suggest the population was closer to 100,000. People from many areas lived in the city, which influenced regions as far as Guatemala. The city had no walls or military buildings. Scholars think the city grew fastest between 100 BCE and 200 CE, when many people from the Basin of Mexico moved there.
Culture
Archaeological evidence shows that Teotihuacan was a city with people from many different backgrounds. While the main languages used in Teotihuacan are unknown, early forms of Totonac and Nahuatl are considered likely candidates. The city’s diverse population can be traced back to a natural disaster that happened before its population grew rapidly. At one time, Teotihuacan was a competitor with another nearby city, Cuicuilco. Both cities were similar in size and were important centers for trade and skilled crafts. However, around 100 BCE, the situation changed when Mount Xitle, a volcano, erupted. This eruption damaged Cuicuilco and the farmland that supported it. It is believed that the large increase in Teotihuacan’s population happened because people from Cuicuilco moved there after the disaster. While the eruption of Mount Xitle is often cited as the main reason for this migration, recent research suggests that an earlier eruption of Popocatepetl, in the middle of the first century, may have started the damage to farmland and the city’s structures. The eruption of Mount Xitle later caused Cuicuilco to be abandoned.
During the Tzacualli phase (around 1–150 CE), Teotihuacan’s population grew to about 60,000 to 80,000 people, most of whom came from the Mexican basin. After this growth, the number of new residents arriving slowed, and by the Miccaotli phase (around 200 CE), the city’s population reached its highest level.
In 2001, Terrence Kaufman presented evidence showing that an important group in Teotihuacan spoke Totonacan or Mixe–Zoquean languages. He used this to explain how influences from these languages appear in other Mesoamerican languages, even though those groups had no known history of contact with Teotihuacan. Other scholars argue that the largest group in Teotihuacan was likely Otomi, as the Otomi language was spoken in the area before, during, and after the Classic period.
The working class in Teotihuacan was also divided into groups, including farmers, skilled craftspeople, and rural residents. Skilled craftspeople, such as painters, builders, and musicians, lived in apartment complexes called neighborhood centers. These centers were important for the city’s economy and culture. The elite built these centers to display the goods made by the craftspeople. The diversity of goods in these centers was helped by the many people who moved to Teotihuacan from different parts of Mesoamerica. Archaeological evidence suggests that textiles were one of the main items traded. Craftspeople used their skills in painting, building, music, and military training. These neighborhood centers were often surrounded by walls to separate them from other areas. This setup created competition among craftspeople, which increased productivity and led to a unique social structure. Evidence from the wear on teeth and bones shows that some people worked with fibers, like those used to make nets, and others sewed or painted for long periods. Signs of carrying heavy objects, such as imported pottery and materials like rhyolitic glass, marble, and slate, were also found. Rural residents lived in areas between middle-class homes or on the city’s edges, while smaller camps with pottery from other regions suggest that merchants also had their own spaces.
Teotihuacan’s compounds show evidence of three social classes: high elites, intermediate elites, and laborers. Most people lived in apartment compounds based on their class, with each compound containing multiple homes. Each home had between 5 and 10 people, depending on the type of residence. In addition to homes for low-status, intermediate-status, and elite residents, some people lived in Temple Housing. The quality of construction materials, room sizes, and objects found in homes suggest that those living closer to the Central district and along the Avenue of the Dead may have had higher status. However, Teotihuacan did not seem to have clearly defined zoning areas. Elite compounds often had elaborate murals showing priests in fancy clothes, jaguars, storm gods, and a goddess offering gifts like maize and water. Rulers are not shown in Teotihuacan art, which instead focuses on religious offices and deities. This suggests that the art celebrated nature and the supernatural, emphasizing equality rather than aristocracy. Writing is also absent from Teotihuacan art, even though the city had strong connections with the literate Maya.
George L. Cowgill’s research has helped explain how social differences affected daily life in Teotihuacan. He studied apartment compounds where most people lived and found that they were not just homes but also important for social and economic organization. These compounds showed different levels of status and access to resources. Cowgill used methods like population models, spatial analysis, and artifact studies to understand the city’s organization and complexity.
In An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, Miller and Taube list eight deities. Esther Pasztory adds one more. Scholars agree that the main god of Teotihuacan was the Great Goddess of Teotihuacan. The city’s main buildings were pyramids, and political leaders were also religious leaders. Religious leaders would commission artists to create artworks for ceremonies, such as murals or censers showing gods like the Great Goddess or the Feathered Serpent. Censers were used in rituals to honor gods, sometimes involving human sacrifice.
Archaeological evidence from human and animal remains found in pyramids shows that Teotihuacanos practiced human sacrifice. Scholars believe these sacrifices were part of ceremonies when buildings were built or expanded. Victims were likely captured enemy warriors brought to the city for rituals.
Archeological site
The knowledge of Teotihuacan's large ruins was never completely forgotten. After the city fell, many people lived on the site. During the time of the Aztecs, the city was a place where people traveled to worship and was connected to the myth of Tollan, the place where the sun was created. Today, Teotihuacan is one of the most important archaeological sites in Mexico.
In the late 1600s, Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora (1645–1700) did some digging near the Pyramid of the Sun. Small archaeological work happened in the 1800s. In 1905, Leopoldo Batres, a Mexican archaeologist and government official during the Porfirio Díaz regime, led a major excavation and restoration project. The Pyramid of the Sun was restored to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the Mexican War of Independence in 1910. Teotihuacan was the first site taken over by the Mexican government under the Law of Monuments (1897), which gave the government control over the site. About 250 plots were farmed there. Farmers were told to leave, and the government later gave them some money. A railway line was built to the site in 1908, which helped move materials from excavations and later brought tourists. In 1910, the International Congress of Americanists met in Mexico during centennial celebrations, and important guests, like president Eduard Seler and vice president Franz Boas, visited the newly finished excavations.
More work at the Ciudadela was done in the 1920s, led by Manuel Gamio. Between April 26 and July 29, 1932, Swedish archaeologist Sigvald Linné, his wife, and a small team dug in the Xolalpan area, part of San Juan Teotihuacán. Other parts of the site were studied in the 1940s and 1950s. From 1960 to 1965, INAH completed a major project to restore and dig at Teotihuacan, led by Jorge Acosta. This project aimed to clear the Avenue of the Dead, strengthen nearby structures, and dig the Palace of Quetzalpapalotl.
In 1971, workers installing a "sound and light" show found an entrance to a tunnel and cave system under the Pyramid of the Sun. Scholars once believed the tunnel was natural, but recent studies showed it was manmade. The inside of the Pyramid of the Sun has never been fully explored.
Between 1980 and 1982, another major project focused on the Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent and the Avenue of the Dead. Recently, excavations at the Pyramid of the Moon have provided more evidence about ancient practices.
In late 2003, archaeologists Sergio Gómez Chávez and Julie Gazzola of INAH accidentally discovered a tunnel under the Temple of the Feathered Serpent. After heavy rain, Gómez noticed a large hole near the temple. He used a flashlight to look inside but saw only darkness. Tied with a thick rope, he was lowered into the hole and found a perfectly round shaft. At the bottom, he discovered an ancient, man-made tunnel blocked by large stones. Gómez thought the tunnel might be similar to one found under the Pyramid of the Sun and planned to study it further. He built a tent over the hole to protect it from tourists. Researchers believed the tunnel was sealed around 200 CE.
Planning and fundraising for the project took over six years. Before digging began in early 2004, Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera of UNAM used ground-penetrating radar and a team of 20 archaeologists to map the tunnel and find internal chambers. By 2005, a digital map was completed. A robot called Tlaloc II-TC, with an infrared camera and laser scanner, explored the tunnel. The robot captured images 37 meters into the passage.
In 2009, the government allowed Gómez to dig. By late 2009, archaeologists found the entrance to the tunnel, which might lead to chambers where rulers of the city were buried. In August 2010, Gómez announced that INAH would study the tunnel, which had been closed nearly 1,800 years ago. The team, including about 30 people and advisors, planned to enter the tunnel in September–October 2010. This excavation, the deepest at the site, was part of celebrations for the 100th anniversary of Teotihuacan's archaeological work.
The tunnel runs under the Feathered Serpent Temple, with the entrance near the temple, sealed with large rocks nearly 2,000 years ago. The hole found in 2003 was not the entrance; a vertical shaft 5 meters wide leads to the tunnel. At 14 meters deep, the tunnel has a 100-meter-long corridor ending in underground rooms. After digging, steps and ladders were built for access. Workers removed nearly 1,000 tons of soil and debris. Items found included wooden masks with jade and quartz, necklaces, rings, crocodile teeth, human figurines, crystals shaped like eyes, beetle wings in a box, jaguar sculptures, and hundreds of shiny metal balls. The balls, made of clay covered in yellow jarosite, were found in both northern and southern chambers. George Cowgill of Arizona State University said the balls are unique but their purpose is unknown. All items were placed deliberately, possibly as offerings to gods.
One of the most amazing finds was a miniature mountain landscape 17 meters underground, with tiny pools of liquid mercury representing lakes. The tunnel walls and ceiling were carefully decorated.
Contemporary issues
The archaeological park of Teotihuacán is facing threats from new construction projects. In 2004, the governor of Mexico state, Arturo Montiel, allowed Wal-Mart to build a large store in the third archaeological zone of the park. Sergio Gómez Chávez, an archaeologist and researcher for Mexico's National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH), reported that fragments of ancient pottery were discovered where trucks removed soil from the site.
More recently, Teotihuacán has become a topic of debate due to Resplandor Teotihuacán, a large light and sound display created for nighttime tourist experiences. Critics state that many holes drilled for the project have caused cracks in stones and permanent damage, while the project will provide limited benefits.
In May 2021, the Secretariat of Culture reported that a construction crew was using heavy machinery to clear the northern outskirts of the city ruins to build an amusement park, despite government orders to stop work for three months. The report noted that at least 25 archaeological structures were in immediate danger.
On May 31, 2021, 250 National Guard members and 60 agents of the Attorney General's Office were sent to the Teotihuacán site to take control of land planned for illegal construction and to stop further damage to historical sites. INAH had canceled permission for these projects in March, but construction and artifact theft continued. The land seizure occurred one week after the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) warned that Teotihuacán risked losing its UNESCO World Heritage status.
On April 20, 2026, a gunman shot and killed a Canadian woman and injured several others before taking his own life at the pyramids.