Timbuktu is an ancient city in Mali, located 20 kilometers (12 miles) north of the Niger River. It is the capital of the Tombouctou Region, one of Mali’s 19 administrative regions. According to the 2022 census, the city has a population of about one million people.

Evidence shows people lived in the area long before Timbuktu became a major center for Islamic learning and trade during the medieval period. The city started as a seasonal settlement and became permanent in the early 12th century. After trade routes changed, especially following the visit of Mansa Musa around 1325, Timbuktu grew because of its location along routes for trading salt, gold, and ivory. It became an important Islamic city in the Sahara and attracted scholars and traders. Timbuktu joined the Mali Empire in the early 14th century. In the first half of the 15th century, the Tuareg people briefly controlled the city before the Songhai Empire took over in 1468.

A Moroccan army defeated the Songhai in 1591 and made Timbuktu their capital. The invaders created a new ruling group, the Arma, who later became independent of Morocco. During its golden age, Timbuktu’s Islamic scholars and trade network supported a thriving book trade. The Sankoré Madrasah, an Islamic university, helped make Timbuktu a major center for learning in Africa. Writers like Shabeni and Leo Africanus described the city, which led to European interest and changed the city’s reputation from wealthy to mysterious. After Timbuktu’s decline as a cultural and learning hub, different tribes ruled until France took control of Mali in 1893. French rule lasted until Mali became an independent republic in 1960.

In recent years, extremist groups have damaged cultural sites in Timbuktu. Local and international groups have worked to protect the city’s heritage. The population has decreased due to these recent challenges.

Toponymy

Over many years, the spelling of Timbuktu has changed a lot. Early examples include "Tenbuch" from the Catalan Atlas in 1375, "Thambet" from a letter written by traveler Antonio Malfante in 1447, and "Timbúktu" and "Timbu'ktu" from Heinrich Barth. French sources often use "Tombouctou" in international references. The German spelling "Timbuktu" and its variation "Timbucktu" have been adopted into English, with "Timbuktu" becoming common in recent years. Some English books use "Timbuctoo," which scholars say is the correct English spelling. Other variations like "Timbuctou" and "Timbuctu" are also sometimes used.

The French have used "Tombouctou" for over 100 years. Other French variations include "Temboctou" (used by explorer René Caillié) and "Tombouktou," but these are rarely seen. Other places, such as Jenne (also called Djenné) and Segu (also called Ségou), also have different spellings. The name "Timbuktu" itself is still debated by experts. At least four theories about the origin of the name have been proposed.

The truth of these theories depends on who founded the city. As recently as 2000, archaeologists had not found remains from the 1100s or 1200s within the modern city because the area is covered by sand. Without agreement among experts, the origin of the name "Timbuktu" remains unclear.

Prehistory

Timbuktu, like other important Medieval West African towns such as Djenné (Jenné-Jeno), Gao, and Dia, has evidence of Iron Age settlements that are older than the town's traditional founding date. Thick layers of sand have made it difficult for archaeologists to dig in the town itself. However, some areas around Timbuktu are eroding, revealing pieces of pottery on the surface. In 1984, Susan and Roderick McIntosh studied the area and found several Iron Age sites along the el-Ahmar, an ancient wadi system located a few kilometers east of the modern town.

An Iron Age tell complex, located nine kilometers (5 + 1⁄2 miles) southeast of Timbuktu near the Wadi el-Ahmar, was excavated by archaeologists from Yale University and the Mission Culturelle de Tombouctou between 2008 and 2010. The findings show that the site was first occupied around 500 BC, became more active during the second half of the first millennium AD, and eventually declined sometime between the late 10th and early 11th centuries AD. The Maghsharan Tuareg are credited with founding Timbuktu.

History

Timbuktu is known in the Western world as a mysterious and unusual place, but it was once a major center for trade and learning during the medieval period. The city reached its most successful time during the Mali Empire in the 13th and 14th centuries. Mansa Mūsā, a powerful ruler of Mali, helped make Timbuktu famous by bringing scholars from across the Islamic world to study there. These scholars taught subjects such as Islamic studies, history, law, science, and medicine. Mansa Mūsā also introduced Timbuktu and the Mali Empire to other parts of the medieval world through his journey to Mecca, which inspired Arab travelers to visit North Africa. Europeans did not reach Timbuktu until much later because the journey was long and difficult, which made the city seem even more mysterious.

Timbuktu became wealthy from gold and salt mining, as well as the trade of enslaved people across the Sahara Desert. Gold was highly valued in the Mediterranean region, and salt was in demand south of the city. However, Timbuktu’s most important advantage was its location. The city is near the Niger River, which provided good land for farming. Its position near the edge of the Sahara Desert made it a key point for trade routes across Africa. Because of this, Timbuktu became a place where many different cultures and ideas came together.

The Mali Empire began to decline in the mid-1400s, leading to the rise of the Songhai Empire. Timbuktu was briefly ruled by the Tuareg people before the Songhai took control. Despite changes in power, the city remained prosperous until the Moroccans invaded the Songhai Empire in 1590. After the Battle of Tondibi in 1591, the Moroccans occupied Timbuktu. In 1593, many of the city’s scholars were killed or forced to leave because they refused to support the new rulers. This, along with a drop in trade due to new sea routes, caused Timbuktu to lose its importance. In the 1890s, Timbuktu became part of the French colony of Sudan and remained under French control until Mali gained independence in 1960.

Today, Timbuktu has far fewer people than it did during the medieval period, when it is estimated to have had about 100,000 residents. The city has faced long-term poverty and depends on government aid to survive. Timbuktu is governed by Mali’s national government, led by Colonel Assimi Goïta, which includes a president, prime minister, and the National Transitional Council. All branches of the government are currently controlled by a military group that took power in coups in 2020 and 2021.

On August 8, 2023, Timbuktu was completely blocked by the group Jama'at Nasr al-Islam wal Muslimin (JNIM), an ally of al-Qaeda. This attack worsened poverty, increased prices, and caused food shortages. About 33,000 people left the city and surrounding areas, and 1,000 fled to Mauritania since the siege began. The siege started after the United Nations mission to Mali, MINUSMA, withdrew during the Mali War. The situation is still ongoing.

Geography

Timbuktu is located on the southern edge of the Sahara Desert. It is 15 kilometers (9.5 miles) north of the main channel of the River Niger. The town is surrounded by sand dunes, and sand covers the streets. The port of Kabara is 8 kilometers (5 miles) south of Timbuktu and is connected to an arm of the river by a 3-kilometer (2-mile) canal. The canal became heavily filled with silt but was dredged in 2007 as part of a project funded by Libya.

The annual flood of the Niger River happens because of heavy rainfall in the headwaters of the Niger and Bani rivers in Guinea and northern Ivory Coast. Rainfall in these areas peaks in August, but floodwater takes time to travel down the river system and through the Inner Niger Delta. At Koulikoro, 60 kilometers (37 miles) downstream from Bamako, the flood peaks in September. In Timbuktu, the flood lasts longer and usually reaches its highest level at the end of December.

In the past, the area flooded by the river was larger. During years with heavy rainfall, floodwater reached the western outskirts of Timbuktu. A small navigable creek to the west of the town is shown on maps published by Heinrich Barth in 1857 and Félix Dubois in 1896. Between 1917 and 1921, during the colonial period, the French used enslaved workers to dig a narrow canal connecting Timbuktu with Kabara. Over the next decades, this canal filled with silt and sand. However, in 2007, the canal was re-excavated as part of the dredging project. Now, when the River Niger floods, Timbuktu is again connected to Kabara. The Malian government has promised to fix problems with the canal’s design, as it currently lacks footbridges and has steep, unstable banks that make access to the water difficult.

Kabara can function as a port only in December and January, when the river is in full flood. When water levels are lower, boats dock at Korioumé, which is linked to Timbuktu by an 18-kilometer (11-mile) paved road.

Timbuktu has a hot desert climate (BWh) according to the Köppen Climate Classification. The weather is extremely hot and dry for most of the year, with most of the city’s rainfall occurring between June and September due to the West African Monsoon. Daily temperature changes are greater during the dry season than the wet season. Average daily maximum temperatures in the hottest months—April, May, and June—exceed 40°C (104°F). The lowest temperatures occur during the mildest months—December, January, and February. Average maximum temperatures do not drop below 30°C (86°F). These winter months are marked by dry, dusty trade winds blowing from the Saharan Tibesti Region southward to the Gulf of Guinea. These winds pick up dust particles, reducing visibility in what is called the "Harmattan Haze." When the dust settles in the city, sand accumulates, and desertification becomes a risk.

Economy

Timbuktu’s wealth and survival were closely tied to its role as the southern end of a major trade route across the Sahara Desert. Today, the only goods regularly moved through the desert are slabs of rock salt from the Taoudenni mining area, located 664 km (413 mi) north of Timbuktu. Until the second half of the 20th century, most salt slabs were transported by large caravans of camels, known as azalai, with one group leaving Timbuktu in early November and another in late March. These caravans, which included thousands of camels, took about three weeks to travel each way. They carried food to miners and returned with each camel carrying four or five slabs of salt, each weighing about 30 kg (66 lb). The salt transport was mainly managed by members of the Arabic-speaking Berabich (or Barabish) tribe. Today, salt is usually moved by truck from Taoudenni, and from Timbuktu, it is transported by boat to other towns in Mali.

Between the 12th and 14th centuries, Timbuktu’s population grew rapidly as people from groups like the Bono, Tuaregs, Fulanis, and Songhais arrived to trade, find safety, or study. By 1300, the population reached about 10,000 and continued to grow, reaching around 50,000 by the 1500s.

The Timbuktu region receives too little rainfall for farming without irrigation. Crops are grown using water from the River Niger. Rice is the main crop, with African floating rice (Oryza glaberrima) traditionally planted in river areas that flood annually. Seeds are sown at the start of the rainy season (June–July), so plants are already 30–40 cm (12–16 in) tall when floodwaters arrive. As water levels rise, the rice plants grow up to three meters (10 feet) tall. Harvesting is done by canoe in December. This method is risky and produces low yields, but it requires little money. Success depends on the amount and timing of rain and the height of the flood. Small mud dikes can be built to help control floodwater to some extent.

Although floating rice is still grown in parts of Timbuktu, most rice is now cultivated in three large irrigated areas south of the town: Daye (392 ha), Koriomé (550 ha), and Hamadja (623 ha). Water is pumped from the river using ten large Archimedes’ screws installed in the 1990s. These areas are managed by cooperatives with about 2,100 families growing rice on small plots. Most of the rice produced is used by the families themselves. Yields remain low, and farmers are encouraged to improve their methods.

Most tourists visit Timbuktu between November and February when temperatures are cooler. In the 1980s, three small hotels—Hendrina Khan Hotel, Hotel Bouctou, and Hotel Azalaï—provided accommodations. As tourist numbers grew, by 2006 there were seven small hotels and guest houses. The town benefited from revenue from a CFA 5000 tourist tax, sales of handicrafts, and employment of local guides.

In 2008, al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb began kidnapping tourists in the Sahel region. In January 2009, four tourists were kidnapped near the Mali–Niger border after attending a cultural festival. One was later killed. This and other incidents led countries like France, Britain, and the US to advise citizens to avoid traveling far from Bamako. Tourist numbers dropped sharply, from about 6,000 in 2009 to only 492 in the first four months of 2011.

Because of security concerns, the Malian government moved the 2010 Festival in the Desert from Essakane to near Timbuktu. In November 2011, attackers killed one tourist and kidnapped three others staying at a hotel in Timbuktu. This was the first terrorist attack in the city itself.

On 1 April 2012, one day after the capture of Gao, Timbuktu was taken over by Tuareg rebels from the MNLA and Ansar Dine. Five days later, the MNLA declared the region independent as Azawad. This claim was not recognized by any nations or international groups and collapsed three months later on 12 July.

On 28 January 2013, French and Malian troops began retaking Timbuktu from Islamist rebels. A force of 1,000 French soldiers and 200 Malian soldiers retook the city without a fight. The rebels had fled north earlier, setting fire to the Ahmed Baba Institute, which held 30,000 important manuscripts. Before the attack, about 28,000 manuscripts were moved to safety, but the location of 2,000 remained unknown. The institute was intended to support Islamic research.

On 30 March 2013, jihadists infiltrated Timbuktu nine days before a suicide bombing at a Malian army checkpoint at the international airport, killing a soldier. Fighting continued until 1 April, when French warplanes helped Malian forces drive the remaining rebels from the city center.

On 2 June 2025, JNIM militants attacked a military base near Timbuktu using a car packed with explosives. The airport was also shelled with mortars. Officials reported that operations at the base ended, but attackers remained in the city. The Malian army said 14 attackers were killed and 31 suspected terrorists were arrested.

Early accounts in the West

Tales about Timbuktu's great wealth encouraged European explorers to search the west coast of Africa. Among the most well-known descriptions of Timbuktu are those written by Leo Africanus and Shabeni.

One of the most famous accounts of Timbuktu was written by Leo Africanus, who was born El Hasan ben Muhammed el-Wazzan-ez-Zayyati in Granada in 1485. His family was among many Muslims forced to leave Spain after King Ferdinand and Queen Isabel took control of the country in 1492. They moved to Morocco, where he studied in Fes and traveled with his uncle on diplomatic trips across North Africa. During these journeys, he visited Timbuktu. As a young man, he was captured by pirates and taken to Rome, where he was presented to Pope Leo X. The pope freed him, gave him the name "Johannis Leo de Medici," and asked him to write a detailed description of Africa in Italian. His writings provided much of what Europeans knew about Africa for many years. In one passage, he described Timbuktu during the height of the Songhai Empire:

"The rich king of Tombuto has many gold plates and scepters, some weighing 1300 pounds. … He always has 3000 horsemen … and many doctors, judges, priests, and other learned men who are well cared for by the king."

— Leo Africanus, Descrittione dell' Africa

According to Leo Africanus, there were plenty of locally grown grain, cattle, milk, and butter in Timbuktu, though the city had no gardens or orchards. He also wrote about the rarity of salt, a valuable trade item:

"The inhabitants are very rich, especially the people who live in the area. … Salt is very hard to find because it must be brought from Tegaza, 500 miles away. At one time, a load of salt sold for eighty ducats. The king has a large collection of coins and gold bars."

— Leo Africanus, Descrittione dell' Africa in Reading About the World, Volume 2

These descriptions interested European explorers. Africanus also wrote about everyday life in the city, such as "cottages built of chalk and covered with thatch," though these details were not widely noticed.

The population of Timbuktu was estimated at about 40,000 people, not including slaves or foreigners. Most of the people were Black, and many visitors married local women, who were often described as very beautiful.

About 250 years after Leo Africanus visited Timbuktu, the city had many different rulers. By the late 1700s, the power of Moroccan rulers had weakened, leading to unstable leadership by changing tribes. During the rule of one of these tribes, the Hausa, a 14-year-old boy named Shabeni (or Shabeeny) from Tetuan, Morocco, traveled with his father to Timbuktu.

Shabeni lived in Timbuktu for three years before moving to a city called Housa, which was several days' journey to the southeast. Two years later, he returned to Timbuktu and stayed there for another seven years. At that time, the city's population was more than twice the size of the 21st-century town, even after many years of decline.

By the time Shabeni was 27, he was a successful merchant in his hometown of Tetuan. He made a two-year journey to Mecca, which made him a hajji, known as Asseed El Hage Abd Salam Shabeeny. After returning from a trading trip to Hamburg, he was captured by a ship with an English crew but flying a Russian flag. The captain claimed that Russian leader Catherine the Great was "at war with all Muselmen" (see Russo-Turkish War, 1787–1792). Shabeni and the ship were taken to Ostend, Belgium, in December 1789. However, the British consul helped free him and the ship. He then traveled again on the same ship, but the captain, fearing capture, left him in Dover, England. His story was recorded there. Shabeni described the city's size and environment in the late 1700s, noting that it had forests, unlike the dry land it has today.

Arts and culture

Timbuktu has important buildings, including three mosques: Djinguereber, Sankoré, and Sidi Yahya.

The Djinguereber Mosque was built in 1327 under Mansa Musa. Mansa Musa’s journey to Mecca, during which he gave away large amounts of gold, helped build the mosque and made Timbuktu a center for Islamic learning. In 2006, the mosque was restored because sand was threatening the structure.

The Sankoré Madrasah, also called the Sankoré Mosque, was built between the 14th and 15th centuries. It was important for education and learning in Timbuktu. Its libraries held thousands of books on subjects like religion and science.

The Sidi Yahya Mosque was founded in 1400 by Sheikh El-Mokhtar Hamalla. It was named after its first leader, Sidi Yahya al-Tadelsi. This mosque is one of the oldest in Timbuktu. Construction was finished in 1440.

A well-known cultural event is the Festival au Désert. After the Tuareg rebellion ended in 1996, 3,000 weapons were burned in a ceremony called the Flame of Peace on March 29, 2007. To remember this event, a monument was built. The Festival au Désert, which celebrated peace, was held every January in the desert, 75 km from the city, until 2010.

The Mawloud festival is held every January and celebrates the birthday of Muhammad. During this time, the city’s most valuable manuscripts are read aloud and are a key part of the celebration. The festival began in Timbuktu around 1600 and was originally a Shi’ite tradition from Persia. It combines Sufi Islamic rituals with Timbuktu’s literary heritage. The event includes feasting, singing, and dancing. It ends with a large gathering of people near the Sankoré Mosque, where some of the city’s most important manuscripts are read publicly.

Since 2015, Timbuktu has hosted the Living Together festival every winter.

In December 1988, during its 12th meeting, the World Heritage Committee (WHC) chose parts of Timbuktu’s historic center for inclusion on the World Heritage list. This decision was based on three reasons.

An earlier attempt in 1979 failed because the Malian government had not clearly defined the area to be included. About ten years later, three mosques and 16 tombs or cemeteries in the Old Town were chosen for World Heritage status. This decision led to calls for protecting the buildings, stopping new construction near the sites, and preventing sand from damaging them.

Soon after, the monuments were added to the List of World Heritage in Danger by the Malian government and the selection committee. This status lasted from 1990 to 2005, when restoration work and an inventory of items showed enough progress to remove the sites from the list. In 2008, the WHC began "reinforced monitoring" of the protected area, a step made possible in 2007 because the effects of planned construction were unclear. Special attention was given to the building of a cultural center.

In June 2009, UNESCO stopped its increased monitoring program because it believed enough progress had been made to address earlier concerns. However, after Timbuktu was taken over by MNLA and the Islamist group Ansar Dine, the sites were again placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger in 2012.

Today, many conservation efforts are led by people in the local community. These efforts include managing and repairing the historic mosques.

In May 2012, Ansar Dine destroyed a shrine in Timbuktu. In June 2012, after the Battle of Gao and Timbuktu, other shrines, including the tomb of Sidi Mahmoud, were destroyed by group members using shovels and pickaxes. Also, manuscripts from the Ahmed Baba Research Centre were taken or damaged. An Ansar Dine representative claimed that all shrines in the city, including the 13 remaining World Heritage sites, would be destroyed because they were seen as examples of idolatry, which is against Islamic beliefs. These actions have been called crimes against humanity and war crimes. After the destruction, UNESCO created a special fund to protect Mali’s World Heritage Sites and promised to rebuild them once the area is safe.

Education

If the University of Sankore had not been destroyed by foreign invasions, the academic and cultural history of Africa might have been different from what it is today.

Timbuktu was a major center of Islamic learning from the 13th to the 17th century, especially during the Mali Empire and the rule of Askia Mohammad I. The Malian government and organizations have been working to record and restore the remains of this scholarly tradition: the manuscripts of Timbuktu.

Timbuktu’s fast economic growth in the 13th and 14th centuries brought many scholars from nearby Walata (now in Mauritania), leading to the city’s golden age in the 15th and 16th centuries. This period was a time of strong growth in the study of religion, art, and science. To the people of Timbuktu, books and literacy were symbols of wealth, power, and blessings. Scholars focused heavily on collecting books. Trade between Timbuktu and other parts of the Islamic world, along with the support of Emperor Askia Mohammed, led to the creation of thousands of manuscripts.

Knowledge was collected in a way similar to early European medieval universities. Teaching happened in informal institutions called madrasahs. Today known as the University of Timbuktu, three madrasahs—Djinguereber, Sidi Yahya, and Sankore—supported 25,000 students.

These institutions were religious, unlike the more secular schools of modern European universities. However, unlike European universities, which began as groups of students and teachers, West African education was supported by families or lineages. The Aqit and Bunu al-Qadi al-Hajj families were two of the most important in Timbuktu. These families also provided rooms in their homes for students. Although Islamic law and its teaching came to Timbuktu from North Africa with the spread of Islam, local scholarship developed. Ahmad Baba al Massufi is considered the city’s greatest scholar.

Timbuktu served as a hub for scholars and knowledge. Its reliance on trade meant scholars often traveled between the city and its trading partners. In 1468–1469, many scholars left for Walata when the Songhay Empire, led by Sunni Ali, took control of Timbuktu. Later, during the 1591 Moroccan invasion of Timbuktu, scholars had to flee or risk being imprisoned or killed.

This system of education lasted until the late 19th century. In the 18th century, itinerant Quranic schools became a way to provide education to more people. These schools traveled with scholars and their students, who sometimes begged for food. Islamic education faced challenges after the French occupation, droughts in the 1970s and 1980s, and Mali’s civil war in the early 1990s.

Over centuries, hundreds of thousands of manuscripts were collected in Timbuktu. Some were written in the city, while others—like special Quran copies for wealthy families—were brought in through trade. Many were hidden in cellars, buried, or placed behind mosque walls to protect them. These manuscripts survived the city’s decline and now form the collections of several libraries in Timbuktu. In 2003, these libraries held up to 700,000 manuscripts. Examples include the Ahmed Baba Institute, Mamma Haidara Library, Fondo Kati, Al-Wangari Library, Mohamed Tahar Library, Maigala Library, Boularaf Collection, and Al Kounti Collections. These are among up to 60 private or public libraries in Timbuktu today. Some libraries have only a few books on a shelf or in a chest. Under these conditions, the manuscripts are at risk of damage, theft, or harm from long-term climate effects, even though Timbuktu has a dry climate. Two projects funded by universities have aimed to preserve the manuscripts.

In late January 2013, it was reported that rebel forces destroyed many manuscripts before leaving the city. On January 25, 2013, fifteen fighters entered the restoration rooms at the Ahmed Baba Institute in Sankoré. They moved 4,202 manuscripts to a courtyard, poured gasoline over them, and set them on fire. However, most manuscripts were safely hidden. About 90% of the manuscripts were saved by librarian Abdel Kader Haidara and local residents working with the NGO "Sauvegarde et valorisation des manuscrits pour la défense de la culture islamique" (SAVAMA-DCI). Around 350,000 manuscripts were moved to safety, and 300,000 were still in Bamako in 2022.

During the occupation by Islamic extremists, Timbuktu’s citizens worked to protect the "best written accounts of African history." Local residents told Time magazine they had safeguarded 300,000 manuscripts for generations. Many of these documents remain with local people, who prefer not to give them to the government-run Ahmed Baba Institute, which is housed in a modern building built by South Africa in 2009. The institute holds only 10% of the manuscripts. Later, Jean-Michel Djian confirmed to The New Yorker that about 50,000 manuscripts are stored in the family libraries of the "City of 333 Saints." He added that 200,000 manuscripts were moved to safety through the efforts of Abdel Kader Haidara, who used his own money to buy metal lockers to store the manuscripts. Nearly 2,500 lockers were sent to safe houses across the city. Many were later moved to Dreazen.

In 2007, with support from a Fulbright Grant, Alexandra Huddleston spent a year in Timbuktu photographing the legacy of Islamic scholarship. These photos are in the Library of Congress’s permanent collection and have been shown in exhibitions worldwide. A film titled 333 Saints: A Life of Scholarship in Timbuktu has been made about this project and is available through the Library of Congress.

Language

Although Bambara is the common language of Mali, most people in Timbuktu speak Koyra Chiini, a Songhay language that also serves as a common language. Before the 1990–1994 Tuareg rebellion, Hassaniya Arabic and Tamashek each made up 10% of language use, while Koyra Chiini was used by 80% of people. Tamashek was spoken by Ikelan and Tuareg people. However, after many Tuaregs were driven out during the rebellion, fewer people used Tamashek, making Koyra Chiini more common.

Arabic, introduced with Islam in the 11th century, has mainly been used by scholars and religious leaders, similar to how Latin was used in Western Christianity. Although the Bambara people are the largest ethnic group in Mali, they mainly speak Bambara in the southern part of the country. As infrastructure improved and Timbuktu became more connected to southern cities in Mali, more people in the city started using Bambara until Azawad independence.

Infrastructure

Mali has no railroads except for the Dakar-Niger Railway, which goes to Koulikoro. To reach Timbuktu, travelers use roads, boats, or aircraft, which became an option in 1961. From August to December, when the Niger River has high water levels, COMANAV passenger ferries operate a route between Koulikoro and Gao roughly once a week. Pinasses, which are large motorized pirogues, also travel up and down the river during these times, either for hire or as public transport.

Both ferries and pinasses arrive at Korioumé, Timbuktu’s port, which is connected to the city center by an 18 km (11 mi) paved road that passes through Kabara. In 2007, a Libyan-funded project restored access to Kabara, Timbuktu’s traditional port, by clearing a 3 km (2 mi) canal that connects Kabara to the Niger River. This work allows COMANAV ferries and pinasses to reach the port when the river is at its highest level.

Timbuktu has limited connections to Mali’s road network, with only dirt roads linking it to nearby towns. While ferries can cross the Niger River at Korioumé, the roads south of the river are also poorly maintained. A new paved road is being built from Niono to Timbuktu, running north of the Inland Niger Delta. The 565 km (351 mi) road will pass through Nampala, Léré, Niafunké, Tonka, Diré, and Goundam. The completed 81 km (50 mi) section from Niono to Goma Coura was funded by the Millennium Challenge Corporation. This part of the road will support the Alatona irrigation system managed by the Office du Niger. The remaining 484 km (301 mi) section from Goma Coura to Timbuktu is being funded by the European Development Fund.

Timbuktu Airport was served by Air Mali, which operated flights to and from Bamako, Gao, and Mopti until the airline stopped flying in 2014. The airport has a 6,923 ft (2,110 m) runway oriented 07/25, which is both lighted and paved. As of July 2023, Sky Mali operates flights to and from Bamako using Boeing 737 aircraft.

In popular culture

Timbuktu has long been seen as a mysterious and hidden place because much of the gold brought to Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries came from there. This view still exists today. A 2006 survey of 150 young Britons found that 34% did not believe Timbuktu existed, while 66% thought of it as "a mythical place." This idea appears in books about African history and African-European relationships. In Western culture, Timbuktu is often used as a common way to refer to any faraway place.

The reason for this image comes from stories that excited Europeans, especially those written by Leo Africanus in his Description of Africa. Arabic sources focused more on wealthier cities near Timbuktu, such as Gao and Walata. In West Africa, Timbuktu is seen similarly to how Europe views Athens. Therefore, the image of Timbuktu as a distant and mysterious place is a European perspective.

Stories of great riches encouraged travelers to visit the hard-to-reach city. French explorer René Caillié described Timbuktu as "a mass of ill-looking houses built of earth." This changed how the city was seen, from being famous for its gold to being famous for its location and mystery. Since at least 1863, English dictionaries have used Timbuktu as a metaphor for any faraway place.

Timbuktu plays an important role in Dorothy Dunnett’s House of Niccolo series of historical novels. It appears as a physical setting in Scales of Gold and as a spiritual and intellectual influence through the character of Umar, a man from Timbuktu who is enslaved in Europe under the name Loppe. His friendship with Nicholas, the main character, highlights the city’s impact.

Timbuktu has appeared in Disney media, often as a distant location. It was frequently used in Donald Duck comics as a hideout and also appears in The Aristocats, where the butler Edgar plans to send the cats there but ends up being sent himself. The movie incorrectly lists Timbuktu as being in French Equatorial Africa, when it was actually part of French West Africa.

The musical Timbuktu! premiered on Broadway on March 1, 1978. With lyrics by George Forrest and Robert Wright, music by Borodin, Forrest, and Wright, and a book by Luther Davis, it retells the story of the musical Kismet but sets it in mid-14th century Timbuktu. It starred Eartha Kitt, William Marshall, Gilbert Price, Melba Moore, and George Bell. Geoffrey Holder directed, choreographed, and designed the costumes.

Timbuktu has also been mentioned in the hip-hop song Longhorns by California rapper Sematary on his 2021 mixtape Screaming Forest.