The Library of Alexandria in Alexandria, Egypt, was one of the largest and most important libraries in the ancient world. It was part of a larger research center called the Mouseion, which honored the Muses, the nine goddesses of the arts. The idea of creating a universal library in Alexandria may have been suggested by Demetrius of Phalerum, an exiled leader from Athens living in Alexandria, to Ptolemy I Soter. Ptolemy I may have planned the library, but it was likely not built until the time of his son, Ptolemy II Philadelphus. The library quickly collected many papyrus scrolls because the Ptolemaic kings actively and generously supported the collection of texts. No one knows exactly how many scrolls were kept at any time, but estimates range from 40,000 to 400,000 at its peak.
Alexandria became known as the center of knowledge and learning, partly because of the Great Library. Many important scholars worked there during the third and second centuries BC. These included Zenodotus of Ephesus, who helped standardize Homer’s works; Callimachus, who created the Pinakes, a catalog considered the first library catalog; Apollonius of Rhodes, who wrote the epic poem Argonautica; Eratosthenes of Cyrene, who accurately calculated Earth’s circumference; Hero of Alexandria, who invented the first recorded steam engine; Aristophanes of Byzantium, who developed the system of Greek diacritics and divided poetic texts into lines; and Aristarchus of Samothrace, who produced the most accurate versions of Homer’s poems and wrote detailed commentaries on them. During the reign of Ptolemy III Euergetes, a smaller library was built in the Serapeum, a temple dedicated to the Greco-Egyptian god Serapis.
The influence of the Library declined slowly over centuries. This decline began in 145 BC when Ptolemy VIII Physcon removed many scholars from Alexandria, leading Aristarchus of Samothrace, the head librarian, to resign and leave for Cyprus. Other scholars, such as Dionysius Thrax and Apollodorus of Athens, also fled to other cities to continue their work. The Library, or part of its collection, was accidentally burned by Julius Caesar during his civil war in 48 BC, but it is unclear how much was destroyed. It may have survived or been rebuilt soon after. The geographer Strabo visited the Mouseion around 20 BC, and the scholar Didymus Chalcenterus, who produced a large amount of work in Alexandria during this time, suggests that some library resources were still available.
The Library’s importance decreased further during the Roman period due to a lack of funding and support. By the 260s AD, the library no longer had members. Between 270 and 275 AD, Alexandria faced an invasion by the Palmyrene people and an imperial counterattack, which likely destroyed any remaining parts of the Library. The smaller library in the Serapeum may have survived after the main Library’s destruction. The Serapeum, later used as a meeting place for Neoplatonist philosophers who followed the teachings of Iamblichus, was destroyed in 391 AD by order of Bishop Theophilus of Alexandria.
Historical background
The Library of Alexandria was not the first library of its kind. Libraries existed long before in both Greece and the ancient Near East. The earliest known collection of written materials was in Uruk, a Sumerian city, around 3400 BC. Writing was still new at that time. Careful collection and organization of literary texts began around 2500 BC. Later kingdoms and empires in the ancient Near East had long traditions of collecting books. The ancient Hittites and Assyrians had large archives with records written in many languages. The most famous library in the ancient Near East was the Library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh, created in the seventh century BC by the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (ruled 668–c. 627 BC). A large library also existed in Babylon during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II (c. 605–c. 562 BC). In Greece, the Athenian leader Pisistratus was said to have founded the first major public library in the sixth century BC. The idea for the Library of Alexandria may have come from this mix of Greek and Near Eastern traditions.
After Alexander the Great died in 323 BC, his empire was divided among his top officers. The Antigonid ruling family controlled Greece. The Seleucid ruling family, with capitals in Antioch and Seleucia, controlled parts of Asia Minor, Syria, and Mesopotamia. The Ptolemaic ruling family controlled Egypt, with Alexandria as its capital. The kings who ruled the Near East after Alexander the Great wanted to spread Greek culture and learning across the world. These rulers had a strong interest in collecting and organizing information from both the Greeks and older Near Eastern kingdoms. Libraries made cities more respected, attracted scholars, and helped rulers manage their kingdoms. Because of this, every major Hellenistic city had a royal library. However, the Library of Alexandria was different because the Ptolemies aimed to create a place where all knowledge could be stored. Egypt had many papyrus plants, which were needed for writing, so the Ptolemies were well-suited to build such a large library.
Under Ptolemaic patronage
The Library of Alexandria was one of the largest and most important libraries in the ancient world. However, many details about it are a mix of real history and stories that may not be true. The earliest known record about the Library’s founding comes from a document called the Letter of Aristeas, written between about 180 and 145 BC. This document claims the Library was started during the rule of Ptolemy I Soter (around 323–283 BC) and organized by Demetrius of Phalerum, a former student of Aristotle who had been exiled from Athens and later lived in Alexandria. However, this document is not reliable, and some of its information is now known to be incorrect. Other sources say Demetrius was a student of Theophrastus, who was also a student of Aristotle. Some historians believe the Library was actually created later, during the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (283–246 BC), the son of Ptolemy I.
Modern scholars agree that Ptolemy I may have started planning the Library, but it likely became a real place during Ptolemy II’s time. By then, Demetrius of Phalerum had lost favor with the Ptolemaic rulers and probably did not help build the Library. However, some experts, like Stephen V. Tracy, think Demetrius may have collected early writings by Aristotle and Theophrastus, which he could have done because he was part of the Peripatetic school, a group of philosophers.
The Library was built in the Brucheion, or Royal Quarter, as part of the Mouseion, a place for learning and research. Its main goal was to display Egypt’s wealth, though research was also important. The Library’s collections helped the ruler of Egypt. The exact layout is unknown, but ancient descriptions mention rooms for storing scrolls, Greek columns, a walkway called a peripatos, a dining area, reading rooms, meeting spaces, gardens, and lecture halls. These features made the Library a model for modern universities. Shelves for scrolls, called bibliothekai, were labeled with an inscription that read: “The place of the cure of the soul.”
The Ptolemaic rulers aimed to collect all knowledge. They sent royal agents with large sums of money to buy books from anywhere, on any subject. Older copies of books were preferred because they were thought to be closer to the original writings. Agents visited book fairs in places like Rhodes and Athens. According to Galen, a Greek medical writer, any books found on ships arriving in Alexandria were taken to the Library, copied by scribes, and the originals kept there. The Library especially collected many copies of the Homeric poems, which were central to Greek education. Each copy was labeled with its origin.
The Mouseion, which housed the Library, also provided housing and support for scholars, poets, and researchers. These individuals were paid well, given free food and lodging, and exempt from taxes. They ate together in a large dining hall with a high ceiling. Classrooms were available for teaching. Some believe the Mouseion may have even had a zoo for exotic animals because Ptolemy II was interested in zoology. Scholars were expected to focus on research and learning if they were free from daily responsibilities. Strabo, a Greek geographer, called the group of scholars at the Mouseion a synodos, or “community.” By 283 BC, there may have been between 30 and 50 scholars living there.
The Library of Alexandria was not tied to any one school of thought, so scholars had freedom to study different ideas. However, they were still under the king’s authority. One famous, though likely untrue, story involves a poet named Sotades, who wrote a disrespectful poem about Ptolemy II marrying his sister. Ptolemy II reportedly jailed him, and after Sotades escaped, he was sealed in a lead jar and thrown into the sea. The Mouseion was managed by a priest of the Muses, called an epistates, appointed by the king. The Library itself was led by a scholar who also taught the king’s son.
The first known head librarian was Zenodotus of Ephesus, who lived around 325–270 BC. His main work involved creating standard versions of the Homeric poems and early Greek poetry. He also made the first known alphabetical list of rare words. Because the Library’s collection was organized alphabetically by the first letter of the author’s name, some scholars believe Zenodotus created this system. His method only used the first letter of words, and it was not until the second century AD that others used the full alphabet for organizing texts.
Another important figure was Callimachus, who created the Pinakes, a 120-book catalog of all known authors and their works. Though the Pinakes has not survived, descriptions of it show it was divided into sections for different types of writing, such as poetry and prose. Each entry listed an author’s name, birthplace, and works. Entries for famous authors like Aeschylus and Sophocles were very long. Callimachus never became the head librarian, but his work was vital to the Library’s organization. His student, Hermippus of Smyrna, wrote biographies, and Philostephanus of Cyrene studied geography.
Decline
Ptolemy VIII Physcon's decision to drive scholars from Alexandria changed the course of Hellenistic scholarship. Scholars who had studied at the Library of Alexandria and their students continued their research and writing, but they no longer worked closely with the Library. This caused the Library to lose its former respect and importance. A movement of scholars from Alexandria began, as they spread first to the eastern Mediterranean and later to the western Mediterranean. Former scholars and their students carried their knowledge to new places. For example, Dionysius Thrax, a student of Aristarchus, established a school on the Greek island of Rhodes. He also wrote the first book on Greek grammar, a clear guide to speaking and writing well. This book remained the main grammar textbook for Greek students until the 12th century AD. Another student of Aristarchus, Apollodorus of Athens, moved to Pergamum, a rival city of Alexandria, where he taught and studied. This movement of scholars led the historian Menecles of Barca to remark sarcastically that Alexandria had become the teacher of all Greeks and non-Greeks.
From the middle of the second century BC, Ptolemaic rule in Egypt became less stable. Facing social unrest and other problems, later Ptolemies paid less attention to the Library and the Mouseion, continuing the decline that started under Ptolemy VIII. The Library’s status and the position of the head librarian both weakened. Some later Ptolemies used the head librarian role as a political reward for loyal supporters. Ptolemy VIII chose a palace guard named Cydas as head librarian, and Ptolemy IX Soter II gave the position to a political ally. Over time, the head librarian’s role lost its former prestige, and later writers no longer recorded details about individual librarians.
By the start of the first century BC, Greek scholarship changed. At this time, major classical poetic texts were finally standardized, and detailed commentaries had been created for all major Greek literary works. This left little original work for scholars to do. Many began to summarize or rewrite earlier scholars’ commentaries, losing their own creativity. Others focused on commentaries for postclassical poets, such as Callimachus and Apollonius of Rhodes. Meanwhile, Alexandrian scholarship may have reached Rome in the first century BC through Tyrannion of Amisus, a student of Dionysius Thrax.
In 48 BC, during Julius Caesar’s Civil War, Caesar was surrounded in Alexandria. His soldiers set fire to Egyptian ships near the docks to block Cleopatra’s brother Ptolemy XIV’s fleet. The fire spread to nearby parts of the city, causing damage. Seneca the Younger, quoting Livy, claimed the fire destroyed 40,000 scrolls from the Library. Plutarch wrote that the fire spread from the ships to the great library. Cassius Dio mentioned that docks, grain stores, and books were burned. However, Florus and Lucan only described the fire burning the fleet and nearby buildings.
Scholars believe Cassius Dio’s description suggests the fire damaged Library warehouses near the docks, not the entire Library. Despite the fire, the Library likely survived, as the geographer Strabo visited the Mouseion, the research institution connected to the Library, around 20 BC, decades after the fire. Strabo’s writings show the Mouseion was less prestigious than before, though it may have been rebuilt. Strabo did not mention the Library separately, which might mean it had lost its former importance.
Plutarch also wrote that before the Battle of Actium in 33 BC, Mark Antony was said to have given Cleopatra 200,000 scrolls from the Library of Pergamum. However, Plutarch noted his source was unreliable, and the story may have been propaganda. Some scholars argue the story implies the Library still existed, as it would not have been believable otherwise. Edward J. Watts suggests Mark Antony’s gift may have been an attempt to restore the Library after Caesar’s fire.
Further evidence of the Library’s survival comes from Didymus Chalcenterus, a scholar in Alexandria who produced between 3,500 and 4,000 books, making him one of antiquity’s most prolific writers. His works, including commentaries, are preserved in later texts and provide key information about earlier scholars. Lionel Casson argued that Didymus’ output required access to the Library’s resources.
Little is known about the Library during the Roman Principate (27 BC–284 AD). Emperor Claudius built an extension to the Library, but its overall status followed Alexandria’s decline under Roman rule. While the Mouseion still existed, its membership criteria changed, though details are unclear.
Successors to the Mouseion
The Serapeum is often called the "Daughter Library" of Alexandria. For much of the late fourth century AD, it was likely the largest collection of books in Alexandria. During the 370s and 380s, the Serapeum remained a major place where people traveled to visit, and it functioned as a temple with classrooms for philosophers to teach. It attracted followers of Iamblichean Neoplatonism, a religious philosophy focused on the study of rituals and secret religious practices. The philosopher Damascius, who lived around 458–538 AD, recorded that a man named Olympus from Cilicia taught at the Serapeum. He taught his students about traditional ways to worship gods and may have also taught them about religious rituals.
Some scattered references suggest that in the fourth century, an institution called the "Mouseion" may have been set up again in a new location in Alexandria. However, no details about this organization are known. It may have had some books or written materials, but these were clearly not as extensive as those of its earlier version.
Under the rule of Roman emperor Theodosius I, pagan rituals were made illegal, and pagan temples were destroyed. In 391 AD, the bishop of Alexandria, Theophilus, oversaw the destruction of an old Mithraeum, a religious site. Some religious objects were given to Theophilus, who had them displayed in the streets to mock them. This act angered the pagans in Alexandria, especially the teachers of Neoplatonic philosophy and theurgy at the Serapeum. These teachers led their students and followers in a violent attack on Christians, killing many before being forced to retreat. In response, Christians destroyed the Serapeum, though parts of its colonnade remained standing until the 12th century. Whether a library still existed at this time and how large it was is not recorded. Jonathan Theodore noted that by 391/392 AD, there was "no remaining 'Great Library' in the sense of the iconic vast, priceless collection." Only Orosius specifically mentions the destruction of books or scrolls. Sources written after the Serapeum’s destruction refer to its collection of literature in the past tense. However, a recent article suggests that the original Ptolemaic library collection was moved to the Serapeum by the end of the second century AD and that a library existed there until the Serapeum was destroyed along with its books.
The Suda, a tenth-century Byzantine encyclopedia, refers to the mathematician Theon of Alexandria (c. AD 335–c. 405) as a "man of the Mouseion." However, classical historian Edward J. Watts suggests that Theon was likely the head of a school called the "Mouseion," named after the Hellenistic Mouseion that once included the Library of Alexandria but had little connection to it. Theon’s school was exclusive, highly respected, and focused on traditional teachings. He did not seem connected to the militant followers of Iamblichus who taught at the Serapeum. Instead, he rejected Iamblichus’s teachings and emphasized a pure version of Neoplatonism developed by Plotinus. Around 400 AD, Theon’s daughter Hypatia (born c. 350–370; died 415 AD) took over his school. Like her father, she rejected Iamblichus’s teachings and supported the original Neoplatonism of Plotinus.
Theophilus, the bishop involved in the destruction of the Serapeum, allowed Hypatia’s school to continue and even encouraged two of her students to become bishops in areas under his control. Hypatia was very popular in Alexandria and had significant political influence. Theophilus respected Alexandria’s political systems and did not object to Hypatia’s close relationships with Roman officials. Later, Hypatia became involved in a political conflict between Orestes, the Roman prefect of Alexandria, and Cyril of Alexandria, Theophilus’s successor as bishop. Rumors accused her of preventing Orestes from reconciling with Cyril. In March 415 AD, she was murdered by a group of Christians led by a man named Peter. She had no successor, and her school ended after her death.
Despite this, Hypatia was not the last pagan in Alexandria, nor was she the last Neoplatonist philosopher. Both paganism and Neoplatonism continued in Alexandria and across the eastern Mediterranean for centuries after her death. British Egyptologist Charlotte Booth notes that new academic lecture halls were built in Alexandria at Kom el-Dikka shortly after Hypatia’s death, showing that philosophy was still taught in Alexandrian schools. Fifth-century writers Zacharias Scholasticus and Aeneas of Gaza both mention the "Mouseion" as occupying a physical space. Archaeologists have found lecture halls from around this time near, but not on, the site of the Ptolemaic Mouseion, which may be the "Mouseion" these writers referred to.
Collection
The exact size of the collection in any time period cannot be known for sure. Papyrus scrolls made up the collection, and although codices were used after 300 BC, the Alexandrian Library is never recorded as having changed to parchment. This may be because of its strong connection to the papyrus trade. The Library of Alexandria indirectly helped create writing on parchment, as Egyptians refused to send papyrus to their competitor, the Library of Pergamum. Because of this, the Library of Pergamum developed parchment as its own writing material.
A single piece of writing could be spread across multiple scrolls, and dividing texts into self-contained "books" was an important part of organizing the collection. King Ptolemy II Philadelphus (309–246 BC) is said to have aimed for 500,000 scrolls in the library. The library's index, Callimachus' Pinakes, only survives in a few fragments, so it is unclear how large or varied the collection may have been. At its peak, the library was said to hold nearly half a million scrolls. Historians disagree on the exact number, with some estimates as high as 900,000 scrolls and others as low as 40,000. Even the lowest estimate represents a very large collection requiring significant storage space.
As a research center, the library collected new works on mathematics, astronomy, physics, natural sciences, and other subjects. Its scientific methods were used in one of the earliest and most important places for serious textual criticism. Since the same text often appeared in many different versions, comparing these versions was essential to confirm their accuracy. Once verified, official copies were made for scholars, royalty, and wealthy collectors worldwide. This practice generated income for the library.
Legacy
The Library of Alexandria was one of the largest and most important libraries in the ancient world, but it was not the only one. By the end of the Hellenistic Period, nearly every city in the Eastern Mediterranean had a public library, as did many medium-sized towns. During the Roman Period, the number of libraries grew even more. By the fourth century AD, there were at least two dozen public libraries in the city of Rome alone. As the Library of Alexandria declined, new centers of learning appeared in other capital cities. It is possible that much of the material from the Library of Alexandria survived, thanks to the Imperial Library of Constantinople, the Academy of Gondishapur, and the House of Wisdom. This material may have later been preserved during the Reconquista, which led to the creation of European universities and the reassembly of ancient texts that had been scattered.
In late antiquity, as the Roman Empire became more Christian, libraries modeled after the Library of Alexandria and other great libraries from earlier times were established throughout the Greek-speaking eastern part of the empire. Among the largest and most important of these were the Theological Library of Caesarea Maritima, the Library of Jerusalem, and a Christian library in Alexandria. These libraries held both pagan and Christian writings, and Christian scholars used the same methods of studying texts that scholars at the Library of Alexandria had used for analyzing Greek classics. However, the study of pagan authors was not as important as the study of Christian scriptures until the Renaissance.
The survival of ancient texts is due in large part to the fact that they were copied and recopied many times. At first, professional scribes did this during the Roman period. Mediaeval Muslim scholars also played a key role in preserving and translating ancient knowledge. The Graeco-Arabic translation movement translated many ancient texts into Arabic, keeping them safe and intact. Later, these texts were translated and reintroduced to Europe. This movement began under the Abbasid Caliphate, where it was a major part of the Islamic Golden Age. The translation effort involved scholars of many religions in the Abbasid empire. For example, under the support of Caliph al-Ma'mun, a Christian scholar named Hunayn ibn Ishaq translated works by Aristotle, Hypocrates, and Galen, ensuring they remained available to future scholars. These translations were later translated into Latin and brought back to Europe. During the Middle Ages and Renaissance, monks copied these texts, making them more accessible to European scholars.
The idea of rebuilding the ancient Library of Alexandria in the modern era was first suggested in 1974, after Lotfy Dowidar became president of the University of Alexandria. In May 1986, Egypt asked UNESCO to conduct a study to determine if the project was possible. This marked the start of UNESCO and the international community’s involvement in the project. From 1988 onward, UNESCO and the UNDP supported an international competition to design the library. Egypt set aside four hectares of land for the library’s construction and created the National High Commission for the Library of Alexandria. Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak personally supported the project, which helped it progress. An international architectural competition took place in 1989, with the Norwegian firm Snøhetta winning the contest. Completed in 2002, the Bibliotheca Alexandrina now serves as a modern library and cultural center, honoring the original Library of Alexandria. Like the ancient library, the Bibliotheca Alexandrina also includes the International School of Information Science, which trains students for advanced degrees and prepares professionals to work in libraries in Egypt and the Middle East.