Troy (Greek: Τροία, written in the Roman alphabet as Troíā; Hittite: 𒆳𒌷𒋫𒊒𒄿𒊭, written in the Roman alphabet as Truwiša / Taruiša; Latin: Troia) or Ilion (Greek: Ἴλιον, written in the Roman alphabet as Ī́lion; Hittite: 𒌷𒃾𒇻𒊭, written in the Roman alphabet as Wiluša) was an ancient city located in present-day Çanakkale, Turkey. It is most famous for being the setting of the Greek myth about the Trojan War. The archaeological site is open to the public as a tourist attraction and was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in 1998.

Troy was destroyed and rebuilt many times over its 4,000 years of history. Because of this, nine different layers of ancient buildings have been found at the site. Each layer represents a city built on top of the ruins of the one before it. Scientists use Roman numerals to name these layers, with Troy I being the oldest and Troy IX the most recent.

Troy was first settled around 3600 BC and became a small, protected city around 3000 BC (Troy I). One of the early layers, Troy II, is known for its wealth and grand buildings. During the Late Bronze Age, Troy was called Wilusa and was a dependent of the Hittite Empire. The final layers (Troy VIII–IX) were Greek and Roman cities that became popular tourist spots and religious places because of their connection to myths.

The site was first explored by Heinrich Schliemann and Frank Calvert starting in 1871. Under the ruins of the classical city, they discovered the remains of many older settlements. Some of these layers match descriptions from ancient stories, leading some experts to believe that real events might be the basis for the legends. Later studies by other archaeologists have helped scientists learn more about the site, but the exact connection between the myths and real history is still unclear. There is no clear evidence that a Greek attack happened at the city.

Name

In Classical Greek, the city was called Troia (Τροία) and Ilion (Ἴλιον) or Ilios (Ἴλιος). Evidence from the poems Iliad and Odyssey suggests that the name Ilios was originally pronounced Wilios. These names are believed to be from the Bronze Age, as shown by Hittite records that mention a city in northwest Anatolia called Wilusa (𒌷𒃾𒇻𒊭) or Truwisa (𒆳𒌷𒋫𒊒𒄿𒊭). This city is now usually thought to be the same as the archaeological site of Hisarlık, near Tevfikiye. In Greek myths, these names were believed to come from the names of the kingdom’s founders, Tros and his son Ilus.

In Latin, the city was called Troia or Ilium. In Turkish, it is usually called Troya or Truva.

Archaeological site

The archaeological site of Troy includes the hill of Hisarlık and the fields to the south. The hill is a tell, made up of layers that contain remains from more than three thousand years of human activity.

The layers are divided into main sections labeled with Roman numerals. Troy I is the oldest layer, and Troy IX is the most recent. Sublayers are labeled with lowercase letters (such as VIIa and VIIb), and further divisions are marked with numbers (like VIIb1 and VIIb2). There is also an earlier layer called Troy 0, which existed before the layers labeled with Roman numerals.

Scientists estimate the dates of the layers by comparing artifacts found at Troy with those from other sites. However, exact dates are not always known because radiocarbon dating can sometimes be inaccurate.

Troy 0 is a layer from before the Bronze Age. It has only a few finds, such as pottery pieces and wooden beams. It is thought to be around 3600–3500 BC, but little is known about it.

Troy I was built around 3000 BC on the eastern edge of a shallow lagoon. It was smaller than later cities at the site, with a citadel covering less than 1 hectare. However, it had strong limestone walls that were regularly repaired. These walls showed that the people were concerned about safety.

People lived in homes made of stone and mudbrick. Some homes had a megaron layout, where one room was much larger than the others. The city’s layout is not fully understood, but homes seem to have been lined up next to the southern walls. Artifacts from this time include dark pottery, copper objects, and a large stone stele with a carved image of a warrior.

Troy I was built as part of a larger settlement network. Its people came from nearby towns like Kumtepe and Gülpınar, which were connected to the eastern Aegean and southeastern Europe. Troy shared similarities with sites in Thessaly, southeastern Europe, and Aegean locations like Poliochni and Thermi. It had some links to Anatolia, but not as strong as later connections.

Troy I was destroyed by fire around 2550 BC.

Troy II was built around 2550 BC. Although there is no clear sign of a cultural change after Troy I, the new city was much larger. It had a lower town and an expanded citadel divided into two areas. These areas, separated by colonnades, suggest that Trojan society was becoming more complex. At the center were large megaron-style buildings around a courtyard, possibly used for public events. One of these buildings, Megaron IIA, was the largest of its kind in the region.

The citadel was protected by large stone walls and towers with mudbrick tops. It had two ramps, one of which is still visible today. Some archaeologists think one ramp was used for ceremonies instead of practical purposes. The lower city had a wooden wall unlike any other from that time. It was nearly 3 meters wide, with supports and beams fixed into the ground.

Wheel-made pottery first appeared at Troy, along with treasures that show the people were part of a network of aristocratic competition. These items included amber from the Baltic, carnelian from India, and lapis from Afghanistan. Some items were similar to those found at sites like Poliochni and Ur, leading some to believe itinerant craftsmen may have made them.

Troy II was destroyed twice. After the first destruction, the citadel was rebuilt with small, irregularly arranged homes. The final destruction happened around 2300 BC. Some scholars think this was part of a larger crisis, but there is no proof of an attack.

Troy II was mistakenly thought to be Homeric Troy because of its large buildings, treasure hoards, and destruction. Schliemann believed the city’s western gate matched Homer’s description of the Scaean Gate. Later research showed Troy II was too old to have existed with the Mycenaean Greeks.

Troy was occupied from 2300 BC to 1750 BC. However, little is known about these layers because of Schliemann’s poor excavation methods. He destroyed most remains from this time without recording them. These settlements may have been smaller and less wealthy, but this could be due to missing evidence. The citadel had a dense residential area, and some walls from Troy II may have been reused in Troy III (c. 2350/2300 to 2200/2150 BC).

Troy IV (c. 2000–1820 BC) introduced domed ovens, and houses were built with mudbrick for the first time without stone foundations.

By Troy V (c. 1820–1750 BC), the city expanded beyond the citadel to the west. Artifacts from this time include Anatolian-style bowls and Minoan imports. Earthquakes in the 18th century damaged parts of Troy V, including homes.

Troy VI–VII was a major city during the Late Bronze Age. It had a large citadel and a lower town, with a population equal to second-tier Hittite cities. It had a unique Northwest Anatolian culture and connections to Mycenaean Greece. Its location at the Dardanelles may have made it a regional capital protected by treaties. Some parts of its architecture match Homer’s description of mythic Troy, and layers VIh and VIIa show signs of violent destruction, possibly linked to the Trojan War.

Early excavators labeled Troy VI and VII separately, but recent research shows the earliest layers of Troy VII were part of the earlier city. Some scholars suggest changing the labels, but the original terms are still used to avoid confusion.

Late Bronze Age Troy includes parts of Troy VI and VII. Troy VI was built around 1750 BC and its final layer, Troy VIh, was destroyed around 1300 BC. The early layers of Troy VII were from the late Mycenaean period and the Hittite Empire. Later layers were from the Greek Dark Ages and the Neo-Hittite states.

Troy VI and VII were given separate labels by early excavators, but current research shows the first layers of Troy VII were actually part of the earlier city. Some scholars suggest changing the labels, but the original terms are still used to avoid confusion.

Excavation history

In the 16th and 17th centuries, travelers such as Pierre Belon and Pietro Della Valle incorrectly believed that Troy was located at Alexandria Troas, a ruined Hellenistic town about 20 kilometers (12 miles) south of Hisarlık. In the late 18th century, Jean Baptiste LeChevalier identified a location near the village of Pınarbaşı, Ezine, a mound approximately 5 kilometers (3.1 miles) south of the currently accepted site. His findings, published in Voyage de la Troade, were the most common suggestion for nearly a century.

In 1822, Scottish journalist Charles Maclaren was the first to confidently identify the city’s current location. The first excavations at the site were trenches dug by British civil engineer John Brunton in 1855.

The next excavation at Hisarlık took place in 1865, led by Frank Calvert, a Turkish Levantine man of English descent who owned a nearby farm. Calvert conducted detailed surveys and correctly identified the site as classical-era Ilion. This discovery convinced Heinrich Schliemann that Homeric Troy might lie beneath the classical remains, leading to their partnership.

In 1868, German businessman Heinrich Schliemann visited Calvert and received permission to excavate Hisarlık. At that time, the mound was about 200 meters long, less than 150 meters wide, and rose 31.2 meters above the plain and 38.5 meters above sea level.

In April 1870, Schliemann began digging a trench across the mound, now called "Schliemann’s Trench." Between 1871–1873 and 1878–1879, and again in 1882 and 1890 (with Wilhelm Dörpfeld), Schliemann uncovered ruins from the Bronze Age to the Roman period. He planned another excavation in 1891 but died in December 1890. He suggested that the second layer, Troy II, might be the legendary city, though later research showed it predated the Mycenaean era by several hundred years. Important finds included "owl-headed idols" and stone axes from lower layers.

Many of Schliemann’s notable artifacts, known as "Priam’s Treasure," are now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum. Most of the precious metal items sent to Berlin were taken by the Soviet Union in 1945 and are now in the Pushkin Museum in Moscow. Schliemann’s methods, which included removing features without proper study, were controversial even in his time.

Wilhelm Dörpfeld worked with Schliemann from 1893–1894 and later took over excavations. He studied Troy VI and VII, which Schliemann had ignored, to address a gap in the timeline called "Calvert’s Thousand Year Gap." Dörpfeld found a weak section of the Troy VI wall, which he believed matched the mythic city’s description. Schliemann privately agreed that Troy VI might be Homeric Troy but never published this idea.

Carl Blegen, a professor at the University of Cincinnati, managed the site from 1932–1938. He and Dörpfeld improved on Schliemann’s work by using more professional methods. Blegen identified at least nine cities and divided Troy’s levels into 46 sublevels. A later analysis found a 100-year gap between Troy III and Troy IV, suggesting that the citadel’s occupation shrank to the western end during the late Early Bronze Age.

From 1988 to 2005, excavations were led by Professor Manfred Korfmann of the University of Tübingen and the University of Cincinnati, with Professor Brian Rose studying later periods. Evidence of a battle, including bronze arrowheads and fire-damaged remains, was found in layers dated to the early 12th century BC. Korfmann and historian Frank Kolb debated the status of Troy VI in the Bronze Age from 2001–2002.

A major discovery was the Troy VI–VII lower city, which had a defensive ditch and wooden palisade. This expansion would have increased Troy’s area to about 200,000 square meters, changing views of the site from a small aristocratic residence to a major settlement.

Radiocarbon dates from charcoal samples were obtained from the Troy I level.

From 2006–2012, excavations continued under Ernst Pernicka, Korfmann’s colleague. In 2013, an international team led by William Aylward planned new digs using "molecular archaeology," but the Turkish government canceled permits, including theirs.

Since 2014, excavations have been led by Rüstem Aslan of Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University. His team claims to have found a "Level 0" near Troy-II, pushing the city’s history back 600 years. Since 2016, the University of Amsterdam has studied the 150-year history of excavations at the site.

Historical Troy

Troy I–V existed before writing was invented, so we know about them only from what archaeologists have found. However, written records about the city begin with Troy VI during the Late Bronze Age and continue through the Greek and Roman periods of Troy VIII–IX.

Troy VI–VII is believed to be the city called Wilusa and Taruisa in Hittite records. This idea was first suggested in 1924 by E. Forrer because the names "Taruisa" and "Wilusa" sound similar to the Greek names "Troia" and "Wilios" (later called "Ilion"). Later research has made these connections more certain, though some scholars still debate them. Texts about Wilusa are important because they show that Wilusa was influenced by Mycenaean Greece, which the Hittites called Ahhiyawa.

Wilusa first appears in Hittite records around 1400 BC as one of twenty-two states in the Assuwa Confederation, which tried to resist the Hittite Empire. Evidence suggests that the rebellion might have been supported by Ahhiyawa. By the late 1300s BC, Wilusa was allied with the Hittites. Records from this time mention two kings, Kukkunni and Alaksandu, who had peaceful relations with the Hittites while other nearby states did not. Wilusan soldiers may have fought for the Hittites during the Battle of Kadesh. Later, Wilusa faced political problems like other nearby cities. Letters such as the Manapa-Tarhunta and Tawagalawa letters suggest that a Wilusan king either rebelled or was removed from power. This turmoil might have been linked to Piyamaradu, a warlord who opposed Hittite rulers on behalf of Ahhiyawa. However, Piyamaradu is not named as the cause in the texts. The last mention of Wilusa in historical records is in the Milawata letter, where Hittite king Tudhaliya IV says he plans to restore a deposed Wilusan king named Walmu.

In popular stories, these events have been linked to the myths of the Trojan War. However, scholars have not found evidence of any specific events from the legends, and Hittite documents do not mention Wilusa being attacked by Greeks (Ahhiyawa). Hittiteologist Trevor Bryce notes that without more evidence, it is easy to misinterpret Wilusa’s history to fit certain ideas about the Trojan War.

According to Herodotus, Persian king Xerxes sacrificed 1,000 cattle at the sanctuary of Athena Ilias while marching to Greece. After the Persians lost the war in 480–479 BC, Ilion and its area became part of Mytilene’s territory and stayed under Mytilenean control until the failed revolt of 428–427 BC. Athens later freed the Actaean cities, including Ilion, and added them to the Delian League. Athenian influence in the Hellespont weakened after the oligarchic coup of 411 BC, and that year, Spartan general Mindaros also sacrificed to Athena Ilias, copying Xerxes. From about 410–399 BC, Ilion was controlled by local rulers in Lampsacus, who acted for the Persian satrap Pharnabazus.

In 399 BC, Spartan general Dercylidas drove out the Greek soldiers controlling Ilion, reducing Persian influence in the Troad. Ilion remained under Persian control until the Peace of Antalcidas in 387–386 BC. During this time, a statue of Ariobarzanes, the Persian satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, was placed near the temple of Athena Ilias. In 360–359 BC, Ilion was briefly controlled by Charidemus of Oreus, a mercenary leader who sometimes worked for Athens. In 359 BC, he was expelled by Menelaos son of Arrabaios, whom the people of Ilion honored with a grant of proxeny, recorded in the earliest surviving civic decree from Ilion. In May 334 BC, Alexander the Great crossed the Hellespont, visited the temple of Athena Ilias, sacrificed at the tombs of Homeric heroes, and made Ilion free and tax-exempt. After Alexander’s death in 323 BC, his "Last Plans" included rebuilding the temple of Athena Ilias on an unprecedented scale.

Antigonus Monophthalmus took control of the Troad in 311 BC and created the city of Antigoneia Troas by merging several nearby cities. Around 311–306 BC, the koinon of Athena Ilias was formed from remaining

Troy in legend

The main literary work set in Troy is the Iliad, an ancient epic poem that describes the final year of the Trojan War. The Iliad shows Troy as the capital of a wealthy and strong kingdom. In the poem, the city is shown as a major power in the region, able to gather many allies to help defend it. The city is located on a steep hill, protected by large sloping stone walls, rectangular towers, and massive gates with wooden doors that can be locked. According to Dares Phrygius, there were six such gates: the Antenorean, the Dardanian, the Ilian, the Scaean, the Thymbraean, and the Trojan. The city’s streets are wide and well-organized. At the top of the hill is the Temple of Athena and King Priam’s palace, a large building with many rooms surrounding an inner courtyard.

In the Iliad, the Achaeans set up their camp near the mouth of the Scamander River, where they landed their ships. The city stood on a hill across the plain of Scamander, where much of the fighting in the story takes place.

Besides the Iliad, Troy is also mentioned in the other major work by Homer, the Odyssey, as well as in other ancient Greek writings, such as Aeschylus’s Oresteia. The story of Troy from Homer was expanded by the Roman poet Virgil in his Aeneid. The fall of Troy, including the tale of the Trojan Horse and the sacrifice of Polyxena, Priam’s youngest daughter, is covered in a later Greek epic by Quintus Smyrnaeus ("Quintus of Smyrna").

The Greeks and Romans believed the Trojan War was a real event and that the city described in Homer’s works was located in Anatolia on a peninsula called the Troad (Biga Peninsula). For example, Alexander the Great visited the site in 334 BC and made sacrifices at tombs linked to the Homeric heroes Achilles and Patroclus.

Current status

The Turkish government established the Historical National Park at Troy on September 30, 1996. The park covers an area of 136 square kilometers (53 square miles) to include the ancient city of Troy and its surrounding area. Its main goal is to protect historical sites, monuments, and the natural environment of the region. In 1998, the park was recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Visitors can reach the ancient site by following a road from the museum in Tevfikiye village to the eastern side of Hisarlık. A large wooden horse monument stands in the square there, featuring a ladder and internal chambers for public use. The entrance to the site is through a gate next to the square. Visitors pass through turnstiles, and admission is usually not free. Inside the park, dirt roads allow access to most areas, while railed boardwalks are used for steeper sections. Many viewing areas have signs in multiple languages that explain the features. Most signs are outdoors, but a permanent roof covers the site of an early megaron and wall.

In 2018, the Troy Museum (Turkish: Troya Müzesi) opened in Tevfikiye village, 800 meters (870 yards) east of the excavation site. The building’s design was chosen in a contest won by Yalin Mimarlik in 2011. The museum is a cube-shaped structure with large underground spaces and displays more than 40,000 portable artifacts, 2,000 of which are shown on exhibit. Artifacts from other museums in the region were moved to this location. The museum’s collection includes items from the entire prehistoric period of the Troad area.