Yazidis, also spelled Yezidis, are a Kurdish-speaking religious group that has lived in Kurdistan, a region in Western Asia that includes parts of Iraq, Syria, Turkey, and Iran. Some Yazidis also live in Armenia and Georgia. Most Yazidis in the Middle East today live in Iraq, mainly in the areas of Nineveh and Duhok.
Scholars and Yazidis themselves have different opinions about whether Yazidis are a separate group with their own culture and religion or a religious subgroup of the Kurds, an ethnic group from Iran. Yazidism is the religion of the Yazidis. It formed over time through ancient Kurdish beliefs and the teachings of Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir. Most experts believe Yazidism is a unique religion with roots in old Iranian beliefs, later influenced by Sufi traditions. While Yazidism shares some similarities with Zoroastrianism, it is not seen as a direct descendant of it. Some older beliefs that existed before Zoroastrianism are also present in Yazidism.
After early Muslim conquests, Yazidis often faced discrimination from Muslim neighbors. They were sometimes accused of practicing heresy by religious leaders, but at other times they formed alliances and held important roles in Muslim countries.
In modern times, Yazidis have been targeted by ISIS. Because of violence in Kurdish areas, many Yazidis moved to Western countries for safety. In 2014, ISIS carried out a genocide against Yazidis, killing more than 5,000 people, forcing thousands of women and girls into slavery, and causing over 500,000 Yazidis to flee their homes.
Origins
The Yazidis call themselves Êzidî or, in some places, Dasinî. However, Dasinî is actually a name used by a specific group within their community. Some Western scholars believe the word Yazidi comes from Yazid ibn Muawiyah, a historical figure known as Yazid I. However, Yazidis do not agree with this connection. The word Yazidi means "the servant of the creator." Although Yazidism is not named after Yazid ibn Muawiyah, he was respected in Yazidi beliefs. Other scholars suggest the name comes from Old Iranian words like yazata or yazad, which mean "divine being." Another possible origin is from the phrase Ez dā, meaning "Created me." Yazidis also use phrases like Xwedê ez dam ("God created me") and Em miletê ezdaîn ("We are the Ezdayi nation").
The Yazidi religion has some similarities with the Yaresan and Kurdish Alevis. These shared beliefs may have come from an ancient faith that was common among people in western Iran. This faith was different from Zoroastrianism and was based on traditions that existed before Zoroastrianism.
Early writers tried to explain Yazidi origins by linking them to Islam, Persian traditions, or even "pagan" religions. However, research from the 1990s and later has shown that these explanations are too simple and do not fully capture the complexity of Yazidi history.
History
Yazidism developed over time through a complex history that included religious beliefs from before Islam and the teachings of Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir. Scholars believe Yazidism is a separate religious tradition with roots in ancient Iranian beliefs, later influenced by Sufi teachings.
The political history of the Yazidis began after the Yazidi community became more organized between the 12th and 14th centuries. Yazidism was accepted by many Kurdish tribes and emirates, spreading as far west as Antioch and as far east as Sulaymaniyah. Yazidi manuscripts, called mişûrs, were written in the 13th century and listed Kurdish tribes connected to Yazidi spiritual leaders. Only two of the 40 known mişûrs have been published: the Mişûr of Pîr Sini Daranî and the Mişûr of Pîr Xetîb Pisî. The Mişûr of Pîr Sini Daranî includes tribes that are mostly or fully Muslim today, such as the Shikak, Reşan, Dumilî/Dumbuli, Memkan, Kîkan, and Musareşan. Sherefkhan Bidlisi wrote in Şerefname that seven important Kurdish tribes were Yazidi. Yazidism was the official religion of many Kurdish emirates and principalities, including Bohtan, Mahmudi, Donboli, and the Emirate of Kilis.
From the 14th century onward, Yazidis created their own religious and political systems in their regions. Their territory was divided into seven administrative centers, each with its own Sincaq, a sacred bronze object shaped like a bird or peacock to symbolize Tawûsî Melek. These Sincaqs represented power and were used as symbols of authority. Every six months, trained Yazidi reciters called Qewals traveled to other Yazidi areas with military protection from Shekhan and the spiritual center of Lalish. This tradition helped preserve Yazidi beliefs. The Qewals, supported by donations, carried a Sincaq through villages to show the spiritual power of Lalish and the Mîr.
As Yazidis grew in influence, neighboring Muslims began to see them as a threat, leading to long-lasting conflicts. Yazidis faced harsh treatment from Arabs, Persians, Turks, and Sunni Kurds. Two major early attacks happened in 1246, when Sheikh Hassan ibn Adi was killed by Badr Ad-Din Lulu, and in 1414, when Sunni Kurdish tribes attacked Lalish. Many Yazidi leaders were forced to convert to Islam, causing a decline in Yazidi power by the 15th century. However, some Yazidi tribes formed alliances with groups like the Kara Qoyunlu and Aq Qoyunlu against the Timurids. During Saladin’s rule, Yazidis worked as soldiers, diplomats, and were given land to govern.
Yazidis first met the Ottomans in the early 16th century and lived as semi-independent groups under the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans conquered Kurdish areas and placed their own governors in Diyarbekir, Urfa, Shingal, and Mosul. In 1516, Sultan Selim the Grim invaded Syria, capturing Aleppo and Damascus from the Mamluks. The Kurdish leader in Aleppo, Qasim Beg, was at odds with the Mamluks, who wanted to replace him with a Yazidi named Sheikh Izz ed-Din. Even after Qasim Beg pledged loyalty to the Sultan, Sheikh Izz ed-Din became the Emir of the Kurds by persuading Ottoman governors to execute Qasim Beg for treason. However, after Sheikh Izz ed-Din died without heirs, the title was given back to Qasim Beg’s family.
Yazidis lived in many areas, including Bingöl, Bitlis, Van, Hazo, Amedi, Diyarbekir, Hasankeyf, Cizir, and Duhok, according to Evliya Çelebi. Yazidi leaders held important roles in the Ottoman system and were appointed as governors in places like Tikrit and Kerek. Yazidis also traded goods and used ferries for river transport. Evliya Çelebi noted that Yazidi grapes, honey, and raisins were highly valued in Baghdad, Basra, and Lahsa. He also mentioned that Yazidis had many berry trees and that Sinjar had important minerals.
Under Sultan Suleyman in 1534, the Yazidi leader Hussein Beg was given control of the Soran Emirate, including its capital Erbil, and the Bahdinan Emirate, including Amediye. Hussein Beg’s father, Hassan Beg, had allied with the Ottomans after the Battle of Chaldiran and was known for his political skills. After Hassan Beg died in 1534, Hussein Beg took over. Despite Muslim opposition and attempts to overthrow him, Hussein Beg ruled successfully for a time. However, Muslim rulers formed an alliance, captured Erbil while Hussein Beg was away, and defeated him. Hussein Beg tried to reclaim the city but failed, leading to the deaths of 500 Yazidi warriors. He was later called back to Istanbul and executed.
As relations with the Ottomans worsened and tensions grew with Sunni Kurds, the Ottomans used religious differences to control both groups. In 1566, Abu al-S’ud al-‘Amadi al-Kurdi, the Ottoman Mufti, issued religious rulings that allowed the killing of Yazidis, the enslavement of Yazidi women, and the sale of Yazidi slaves. This led to constant military pressure on Yazidis and their territories being labeled Dar Al-Harb (a place of war) by the Ottomans.
Later, Sunni Kurdish princes, especially those from the Bahdinan principality, asked the Ottoman Sultan to eliminate Yazidis, calling them apostates. Ottoman documents show these requests, such as a 1568 document stating the need to end the "corruption" of the Yazidis and punish them. Another document from 1571 demanded the arrest of Yazidi leaders in areas like Mosul, Erbil, and Amadiya.
Identity
Yazidi cultural practices are connected to the Kurmanji language, which is also used in many oral religious traditions of the Yazidis. In the twin villages of Bashiqa and Bahzani, Yazidis speak Arabic as their main language. However, the Arab-speaking groups in these villages, such as the Xaltî, Dumilî, and Hekarî tribes, have historically been considered Kurdish tribes. While most Yazidis speak Kurmanji, their exact origins are debated by scholars and within the Yazidi community itself. Some believe Yazidis are ethnically Kurdish, while others think they are a separate group. Yazidis typically marry only within their community. Those who marry non-Yazidis are removed from the group and cannot claim to be Yazidis.
Some modern Yazidis see themselves as part of the Kurdish people, while others consider themselves a distinct group with their own culture and religion. In Armenia and Iraq, Yazidis are officially recognized as a separate ethnic group. According to Armenian researcher Levon Abrahamian, many Yazidis believe Muslim Kurds abandoned Yazidism by converting to Islam, while Yazidis stayed loyal to their ancestors’ religion. In the 14th century, seven major Kurdish tribes were Yazidi, and Yazidism was the main religion of the Jazira Kurdish principality. Some Yazidi myths say their people are descendants of Adam alone, not Eve, making them different from the rest of humanity. In Iraq’s Kurdistan Region, Yazidis are considered ethnic Kurds, and the region calls them the “original Kurds.” Vian Dakhil, a Yazidi member of Iraq’s parliament, has opposed efforts to separate Yazidis from Kurds. However, Aziz Tamoyan, leader of the Yezidi National Union, says Yazidis are a nation with their own language, Ezdiki, and religion, Sharfadin. Researcher Victoria Arakelova describes Yazidism as a unique example of an ethno-religious identity centered on the religion called Sharfadin. This shows the connection between Yazidi religious beliefs and their ethnic identity.
Yazidis use different words for their community and their religion. For example, they say:
– “Our religion is Sherfedin and belief is Ezi.”
– “Our religion is Sherfedin, belief is Sultan Ezid.”
Sherfedin is the name of a leader, Sheikh Hasan, who helped shape Yazidi religion in the 13th century. He is seen as the symbol of Yazidism. Sultan Ezid is a name for God’s presence and represents belief. Some Yazidis who see themselves as a separate group use “Sherfedin” for religion and “Ezid” for their people.
The word “millet” originally meant “religion” or “religious group,” not ethnicity. Over time, it has come to mean a nation or ethnic group. So, the phrase “Miletê min Ezid” would have originally meant “I belong to the religious group of Ezid.”
Yazidis are considered ethnic Kurds in Georgia and Germany. The Soviet Union listed Yazidis and Kurds as separate groups in the 1926 census but grouped them together in later censuses. A 1597 book by Sharaf Khan Bidlisi mentions seven Kurdish tribes that included Yazidis. Evliya Çelebi, a 17th-century traveler, called Yazidis “Yezidi Kurds” and described them as brave soldiers. He also said the shrine of Sheikh Adi was more impressive than other Kurdish shrines.
In 1895, anthropologist Ernest Chantre found that Yazidis in Turkey called their language “zyman e ezda” (the language of the Yazidis) and claimed Kurds spoke their language. In the past, Yazidis also identified as Kurds. For example, a letter from Yazidi leader Usuv Beg to the Russian emperor said his people were “Yezidi Kurds” and called themselves Kurdish.
Some Yazidi villages in Armenia have Kurdish names, like Sipan, which was once called “Pampa Kurda” (Kurdish Pamb) before being renamed. Nearby, another village was called “Armenian Pamb” but was later renamed “Lernapar.” Yazidi religious leaders, such as Baba Sheikh, the Mîr, and the Peshimam, often emphasized that Yazidis are ethnically Kurdish. A 1966 letter from the mayor of Shekhan to Mosul stated that Yazidis are considered Kurdish.
In 1974, Swedish journalist Tord Wallström met Yazidi leader Tahsin Beg, who said he supported the Kurdish Revolt because he was Kurdish and all Yazidis were Kurdish. He said most Yazidis would join the revolt if asked. He also mentioned that the government had recently executed 20 Yazidis in Mosul.
In the Soviet Union, Yazidis in Georgia and Armenia helped promote Kurdish nationalism. They preserved Kurdish culture, folklore, and language. Yazidis established the first Kurdish theater and radio station and created the first Kurdish Latin-based alphabet. Erebê Şemo, a Yazidi intellectual, also wrote the first Kurmanji novel.
Religion
Yazidism is a religion that believes in one God, who created the world and placed it under the care of a group of seven Holy Beings, often called Angels or heft sirr (the Seven Mysteries). The most important of these is Tawûsî Melek, also known as "Melek Taûs," who is called the Peacock Angel. Traditionally, Yazidis who marry people who are not Yazidis are considered to have joined their spouse's religion.
Genetics
Kurds have a unique genetic pattern called the "Modal Kurdish Haplotype" (KMH or MKMH for Muslim Kurds) found in a group called subclade J2-M172. This pattern includes specific markers at these locations: 14-15-23-10-11-12. The highest levels of this genetic pattern have been found in Yezidis living in Armenia.
A 2022 genetic study in Iraq compared the DNA of Iraqi, Turkmen, Yazidi, and Kurdish groups. It found that Yazidis and Kurds share more genetic similarities than Kurds and Turkmen do. This suggests Yazidis and Kurds have a shared history and origin, likely from the same region thousands of years ago. Both groups also share origins with a larger group of ancient people called Indo-Europeans.
Another study found that Yazidis in northern Iraq may have strong genetic links to the original people of Mesopotamia. Their DNA shows a connection between the Near East and Southeastern Europe.
A genetic study of Georgian Kurds, many of whom follow Yezidism, found that the closest genetic match to them were Kurds from Turkey and Iran. Kurmanji speakers in Turkey were more genetically similar to Zazaki speakers in Turkey than to Georgian Kurds, even though they speak the same dialect. The study’s Y-chromosome data suggests that the Kurdish group in Georgia was founded by Kurmanji speakers from Turkey.
Demographics
Historically, the Yazidis lived mainly in communities in present-day Iraq, Turkey, and Syria, and also had many people in Armenia and Georgia. However, events since the end of the 20th century caused large changes in these areas and led to many people leaving their homes. Because of this, it is hard to know exact population numbers in many places, and different estimates of the total Yazidi population exist.
Most Yazidis today live in Iraq. Estimates of their numbers in Iraq range from 70,000 to 500,000. They are mostly found in northern Iraq, in the Nineveh Governorate. The two largest groups are in the Shekhan District, northeast of Mosul, and in the Sinjar District, near the border with Syria, 80 kilometers (50 miles) west of Mosul. In Shekhan, there is a shrine called the Lalish Shrine, built for Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir. In the early 1900s, most of the settled people in the Syrian Desert were Yazidis. During the 20th century, the Shekhan community and the more conservative Sinjar community competed for influence. Since the Iraq War began in 2003 and the fall of Saddam Hussein’s government, the population distribution has likely changed greatly.
Traditionally, Yazidis in Iraq lived in separate villages and had their own communities. However, many of their villages were destroyed by the Ba'athist government of Saddam Hussein. The government forced Yazidis to move to new villages and destroyed their old homes.
According to Human Rights Watch, Yazidis were part of Saddam Hussein’s Arabisation policies between 1970 and 2003. In 2009, some Yazidis who had experienced these policies complained about political actions by leaders in the Kurdistan Region, which began in 1992 and aimed to make Yazidis identify as Kurds. A 2009 Human Rights Watch report said that Kurdish authorities used political and economic resources to encourage Yazidis to see themselves as Kurds. The report also criticized harsh methods used in this effort.
In Syria, Yazidis mainly live in two communities: one in the Al-Jazira area and another in Kurd-Dagh. Exact numbers for the Syrian Yazidi population are unclear. In 1963, the national census estimated 10,000 Yazidis, but numbers for 1987 were not recorded. Today, there may be between 12,000 and 15,000 Yazidis in Syria, though more than half may have left the country since the 1980s.
The Yazidi population in Georgia has decreased since the 1990s, mostly because of economic migration to Russia and the West. In 1989, over 30,000 Yazidis lived in Georgia, but by 2002, only about 18,000 remained. Other estimates suggest the population dropped from around 30,000 to fewer than 5,000 during the 1990s. Today, some estimates say there are about 6,000 Yazidis in Georgia, including recent refugees from Sinjar in Iraq who fled persecution by ISIL. On June 16, 2015, Yazidis celebrated the opening of the Sultan Ezid Temple and cultural center in Varketili, a suburb of Tbilisi. This is the third such temple in the world, after those in Iraqi Kurdistan and Armenia.
According to the 2011 census, there are 35,272 Yazidis in Armenia, making them the largest ethnic minority group in the country. In 2001, the census recorded 40,620 Yazidis in Armenia. They are mainly found in the Armavir province. Media estimates suggest the Yazidi population in Armenia ranges between 30,000 and 50,000. Most are descendants of refugees who fled to Armenia to escape persecution during Ottoman rule, including a period of persecution during the Armenian genocide, when many Armenians found safety in Yazidi villages.
In the village of Aknalich in the Armavir region, there is a Yazidi temple called Ziarat. In September 2019, the largest Yazidi temple in the world, called "Quba Mere Diwane," was opened in Aknalich, near the Ziarat temple. The temple was privately funded by Mirza Sloian, a Yazidi businessman from Moscow who is originally from the Armavir region.
In Russia, the largest Yazidi population is in Moscow. Other Yazidis live in Saint Petersburg. Outside these cities, regions like Adygea, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Sverdlovsk Oblast (capital: Yekaterinburg), and Novosibirsk Oblast each have between 3,500 and 10,000 Yazidis. Smaller Yazidi communities also exist in other parts of Russia.
A large part of the original Yazidi population in Turkey moved to present-day Armenia and Georgia starting in the late 19th century. Additional communities now live in Russia and Germany due to recent migration. The Yazidi population in Turkey dropped sharply during the 20th century. Most of them have moved to Europe, especially Germany; those who remain live mainly in villages in their traditional homeland of Tur Abdin.
This mass migration has led to the creation of large Yazidi communities outside their homeland. The largest of these is in Germany, where over 230,000 Yazidis now live, mainly in cities like Hannover, Bielefeld, Celle, Bremen, Bad Oeynhausen, Pforzheim, and Oldenburg. Most are from Turkey and, more recently, Iraq, and they live in western states like North Rhine-Westphalia and Lower Saxony. Since 2008, Sweden has seen a significant increase in its Yazidi community, which reached around 4,000 by 2010. A smaller group lives in the Netherlands. Other Yazidi communities exist in Belgium, Denmark, France, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, and Australia, with a total population likely under 5,000.
A Yazidi community has settled in the United States and Canada as refugees. Many Yazidis now live in Lincoln, Nebraska, and Houston, Texas. It is estimated that Nebraska has the largest Yazidi settlement in the United States, with at least 10,000 people. Immigration to Nebraska began in the late 1990s through refugee programs. Many men in the community worked as translators for the U.S. military.
Western perceptions
Because the Yazidis have religious beliefs that are not well-known to others, many people who are not Yazidis have written about them and claimed things about their beliefs that may not be true. The Yazidis, perhaps because they keep their traditions private, are also mentioned in modern discussions about mystical beliefs.
In William Seabrook's book Adventures in Arabia, the fourth section, beginning with Chapter 14, focuses on the "Yezidees" and is titled "Among the Yezidees." He described them as a mysterious group spread across the Middle East, most common in northern Arabia. Many Muslims and Christians feared and hated them because he claimed they worshipped Satan. In the three chapters of the book, he described the area, including the fact that this territory, including their holiest city of Sheik-Adi, was not part of "Iraq."
George Gurdjieff wrote about his experiences with the Yazidis several times in his book Meetings with Remarkable Men, stating that they are considered "devil worshippers" by other groups in the region. In Peter Ouspensky's book In Search of the Miraculous, he described unusual customs that Gurdjieff observed in Yazidi boys: "He told me, among other things, that when he was a child he had often observed how Yezidi boys were unable to step out of a circle traced round them on the ground" (p. 36).
Idries Shah, writing under the name Arkon Daraul, in the 1961 book Secret Societies Yesterday and Today, described discovering a secret society in London suburbs influenced by Yazidi traditions, called the "Order of the Peacock Angel." Shah claimed that Tawûsê Melek could be seen, from a Sufi perspective, as a symbolic representation of higher powers in humans.
In H.P. Lovecraft's story The Horror at Red Hook, some of the violent foreigners are identified as members of "the Yezidi clan of devil-worshippers."
In Patrick O'Brian's novel The Letter of Marque, part of the Aubrey-Maturin series set during the Napoleonic wars, there is a Yazidi character named Adi. His ethnicity is referred to as "Dasni."
A fictional Yazidi character is King Peacock from the Top 10 series (and related comics). He is portrayed as a kind, peaceful person with deep knowledge of religion and mythology. He is shown as conservative, ethical, and strong in family life. A highly skilled martial artist, he can sense and strike his opponent's weakest points, a power he says comes from communicating with Malek Ta'us.
Elif Shafak's 2024 novel There Are Rivers in the Sky includes a Yazidi main character named Narin living in Turkey in 2014. The book highlights Yazidi culture and discusses the community's persecution.
In her memoir about her time with an intelligence unit of the US Army's 101st Airborne Division in Iraq during 2003 and 2004, Kayla Williams (2005) wrote about being stationed in northern Iraq near the Syrian border in an area inhabited by "Yezidis." She noted that some Yazidis spoke Kurdish but did not consider themselves Kurds and expressed support for America and Israel. She learned little about their religion, describing it as very old and focused on angels. She described a mountain-top Yazidi shrine as "a small rock building with objects dangling from the ceiling" and alcoves for placing offerings. She reported that local Muslims saw the Yazidis as devil worshippers. (See § Persecution of Yazidis, below.)
In an October 2006 article in The New Republic, Lawrence F. Kaplan agreed with Williams's observations about Yazidis' support for the American occupation of Iraq, partly because the Americans protected them from oppression by militant Muslims and nearby Kurds. Kaplan noted that the peace in Sinjar was rare in Iraq: "Parents and children line the streets when U.S. patrols pass by, while Yazidi clerics pray for the welfare of U.S. forces."
Tony Lagouranis wrote about a Yazidi prisoner in his book Fear Up Harsh: An Army Interrogator's Dark Journey through Iraq: "There's a lot of mystery surrounding the Yazidi, and a lot of contradictory information. But I was drawn to this aspect of their beliefs: Yazidis do not have a Satan. Malak Ta'us, an archangel and God's favorite, was not cast out of heaven like Satan was. Instead, he descended, saw the suffering and pain of the world, and cried. His tears, thousands of years' worth, fell on the fires of hell, extinguishing them. If there is evil in the world, it does not come from a fallen angel or from the fires of hell. The evil in this world is man-made. Nevertheless, humans can, like Malak Ta'us, live in this world but still be good."
Persecution of Yazidis
The Yazidi people have faced planned violence because they refused to change their religion during times of severe Islamic persecution by the Ottoman Empire. This included the Yazidi genocide in 1915 and later violence in the 20th century by Iraq. Some people from other religions in the area believe the Yazidis worship a spirit similar to Satan, which has led to centuries of persecution, with Yazidis being called "devil worshippers."
On April 7, 2007, a 17-year-old Yazidi girl named Du'a Khalil Aswad was stoned to death by her family. Rumors that she had converted to Islam led to attacks on Yazidis, including a massacre in April 2007. In August 2007, about 500 Yazidis were killed in a series of bombings in Qahtaniya, the deadliest attack since the Iraq War began. In August 2009, 20 people were killed and 30 injured in a bombing in Sinjar, a town where many Yazidis live.
In 2014, the Islamic State (ISIL) took control of Sinjar after Kurdish forces withdrew. This forced up to 50,000 Yazidis to flee into nearby mountains. Many refugees lacked water, and reports said ISIL killed elderly or sick Yazidis who could not escape. Yazidi leaders warned that Sinjar could become the 73rd massacre in their history.
The United Nations reported that at least 40,000 Yazidis, including many women and children, sought safety on Mount Sinjar, a high mountain believed to be where Noah’s Ark rested. ISIL surrounded them, and some Yazidis were rescued by Kurdish and Syrian forces after a humanitarian corridor was opened. Many were later returned to Iraqi Kurdistan.
Captured Yazidi women were treated as sex slaves or taken as war spoils. Some were forced to convert to Islam or faced torture, rape, and death. Babies born in captivity were taken from their mothers. Nadia Murad, a Yazidi activist, was kidnapped by ISIL in 2014 and held as a sex slave. In 2014, the United Nations reported that more than 5,000 Yazidis were killed and 5,000 to 7,000 were abducted by ISIL. ISIL claimed religious justification for enslaving Yazidi women in their magazine Dabiq.
Despite the suffering, Yazidi women joined fighting groups, making up about one-third of Kurdish-Yazidi coalition forces. They fought bravely and helped protect their communities.