The Fenians ( / ˈ f iː n iː ə n z / , FEE -nee-unz ) were Irish activists who wanted Ireland to become independent from the British Empire during the second half of the 1800s and the early 1900s. The main Fenian groups were the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) and its connected group in the United States, the Fenian Brotherhood. In 1867, they tried to start an uprising in Ireland, which was planned with attacks on Canada from the United States. Although the uprising failed, the IRB continued to exist and played an important role in the 1916 Easter Rising and the 1919–1921 Irish War of Independence. These events led to the creation of the Irish Free State.

Fenianism

Fenianism (Irish: Fíníneachas), according to O'Mahony, meant two things: first, that Ireland had a right to be free, and second, that this right could only be achieved through a violent uprising. The name comes from the Fianna, groups of warriors in Irish mythology linked to Fionn mac Cumhail. Stories about the Fianna are called the Fenian Cycle.

In the 1860s, some British leaders who opposed Irish nationalism used the term "Fenianism" to describe any Irish group that supported independence or challenged the Protestant Ascendancy, such as those who fought for tenant farmers' rights. These leaders often incorrectly applied the term to groups like the Tenant Right League, the Irish National Land League, and the Irish Parliamentary Party, even though these groups did not support an independent Irish Republic or the use of force.

19th Century

James Stephens, one of the "Men of 1848" (a person who took part in the 1848 revolt), lived in Paris and wrote letters to John O'Mahony in the United States and other Irish independence supporters in Ireland and abroad. This group included the Phoenix National and Literary Society, which had recently been formed in Skibbereen and had Jeremiah O'Donovan (later known as O'Donovan Rossa) as one of its important members.

Along with Thomas Clarke Luby, John O'Leary, and Charles Kickham, James Stephens started the Irish Republican Brotherhood on March 17, 1858, in Dublin.

The Fenian Rising in 1867 was an unsuccessful rebellion. It was not well planned and had little support from the public. Most of the Irish-American leaders who arrived in Cork, expecting to lead an army against the British, were captured. Small uprisings in other parts of Ireland were quickly stopped by police, soldiers, and local groups. After the rebellion, groups of Fenians in Cork and Dublin tried to kill two police officers in October 1867.

In 1882, a group that split from the Irish Republican Brotherhood, called the Irish National Invincibles, killed Lord Frederick Cavendish, the British Chief Secretary for Ireland, and his assistant in an event known as the Phoenix Park Murders.

The Fenian Brotherhood, the American branch of the Irish Republican Brotherhood, was started by John O'Mahony and Michael Doheny, both of whom had taken part in the Young Ireland rebellion in 1848. Because of distrust from some Americans, the group quickly became independent but still worked to gain support for an armed fight in Ireland. At first, O'Mahony managed operations in the United States and sent money to Stephens and the Irish Republican Brotherhood in Ireland.

In 1865, O'Mahony's leadership was challenged by a group led by William B. Roberts, a wealthy New York merchant who was more connected to the Democratic Party. Roberts' group planned to invade Canada to force the British to give Ireland independence. In 1867, another challenge came from David Bell, a leader of the Irish Republican Brotherhood who had moved to the United States. Bell supported the Republican Party and encouraged Irish Americans to reject prejudice and believe that all people deserve "life, liberty, and happiness."

John Devoy wrote that in 1866, meetings were held to bring different Fenian groups together. These meetings aimed to choose James Stephens as the leader of a united organization. Stephens had avoided being captured by British forces in Dublin the year before but promised that "The Irish flag—the flag of the Irish Republic—will float in an Irish breeze before New Year's Day, 1867." At the end of 1866, a meeting in New York, led by Stephens, decided that the fight should begin in early 1867. Thousands of rifles were later sent to Ireland, but they arrived too late to help during the Rising.

• A special bond called the "Ten-dollar Fenian Bond" was issued in 1866. It promised to pay 6% interest six months after an independent Irish government was created. However, because the Fenians failed, the bond became worthless.
• The "Three Manchester Martyrs" of 1867; on the right is Michael O'Brien, a former soldier in the 1st New Jersey Artillery.
• In 1876, Fenian prisoners escaped from Fremantle in a rescue mission known as the Catalpa rescue.

In Canada, the word "Fenian" refers to a group of Irish radicals, specifically the American branch of the Fenian Brotherhood in the 1860s. They tried to attack parts of British-controlled areas like Campobello Island in New Brunswick and Southern Ontario in Canada. These attacks continued even after these areas joined together to form Canada. The Fenians' goal was to take control of Canada and use it to pressure the United Kingdom into giving Ireland independence. Because of these attacks, few people in Canada supported the Fenians, even among Irish residents.

Francis Bernard McNamee, who started the Fenian movement in Montreal, was suspected of being a government spy. Publicly, he claimed loyalty to the British queen and wanted to create an Irish militia to protect Canada from Fenian attacks. In private, he wrote that the real purpose of the militia would be to help the Fenians invade Canada. He also said that if the government refused his request, he would accuse them of being unfair to Irish Catholics and encourage more people to join the Fenian Brotherhood.

A man named Patrick J. Whelan, suspected of being a Fenian, was executed in Ottawa in 1868 for killing Thomas D'Arcy McGee, an Irish Canadian politician who had been part of the Irish Confederation in the 1840s.

The danger from Fenian attacks in Canada helped push the British North American colonies to create a stronger defense system for protection, which eventually led to the formation of Canada.

The Fenians in England and the British Empire were a major threat to political stability. In the late 1860s, the Irish Republican Brotherhood's main group was in Lancashire, England. In 1868, the group's leadership was reorganized. Representatives from the four Irish provinces, Scotland, and parts of England and London were part of the council. Later, four more members were added. The council chose three people to lead the group: the president, treasurer, and secretary. The Irish Republican Brotherhood had groups in every major city in England.

On November 23, 1867, three Fenians—William Philip Allen, Michael O'Brien, and Michael Larkin—were executed in Salford, England, for trying to free Fenians held in prison earlier that year. They became known as the Manchester Martyrs.

On December 13, 1867, Fenians tried to blow up a prison in London to free one of their members. The explosion damaged nearby homes, killed 12 people, and hurt 120 others. No prisoners were freed. This event was the most famous Fenian action in England during the 19th century.

Early 20th Century

By the beginning of the 20th century, the main Fenian group, the IRB, was not active. It gained new energy because of growing interest in Irish Home Rule just before World War I. The IRB supported the creation of the Irish Volunteers in November 1913. While the Volunteers said their goal was not to form a republic, the IRB planned to use the group for that purpose. They recruited important members, including Joseph Plunkett, Thomas MacDonagh, and Patrick Pearse, who joined the Supreme Council in 1915. These men, along with Clarke, MacDermott, Éamonn Ceannt, and James Connolly from the Irish Citizen Army, formed the Military Committee, the only group that planned the Rising. In January 1916, the Supreme Council decided the Rising would begin on Easter Sunday, 23 April 1916.

The IRB played a major role in the 1919–21 War of Independence. A key Republican leader, Michael Collins, was first the secretary and later the president of the IRB Supreme Council. This made the IRB an important part of the republican movement during the war. However, by 1924, the IRB ended its activities. It is unclear whether this was a formal decision or if the group simply stopped working.

Later usage of the term

In Northern Ireland, the word "Fenian" is sometimes used as an insult for Irish Catholics. In 2012, Nick Griffin, a leader of the British National Party, faced criticism from both Unionists and Republicans after he used the term in a tweet during an event at Stormont, Belfast. Griffin mentioned Lambeg drums, saying, "the bodran [sic] can't match the lambeg, you Fenian bastards."

The term "Fenian" is also used in Scotland, often in a way that targets fans of Celtic Football Club. Celtic was founded by Irish Catholic immigrants in Glasgow and is linked to Irish nationalism, shown by the frequent display of the Irish Tricolour at matches. Other Scottish clubs with Irish roots, like Hibernian and Dundee United, are not usually targeted with this term. The word is now closely tied to the rivalry between Celtic and Rangers. In some cases, using "Fenian" as a religious insult was illegal in Scotland under the Offensive Behaviour at Football and Threatening Communications (Scotland) Act 2012. This law was ended in January 2018.

The term has also been used as an insult when Celtic plays outside Scotland. In 2013, AFC Ajax was fined €25,000 by UEFA after its fans displayed a banner reading "Fenian Bastards" during a match against Celtic at the Amsterdam Arena. The term also appeared on a banner held by Lazio fans during a Champions League match against Celtic on 28 November 2023.

In Australia, "Fenian" is used as an insult for members of the Australian Labor Party (ALP) who support making Australia a republic, similar to those who want Ireland to unite. In 2006, Michael Atkinson, the Attorney-General of South Australia, referred to some ALP members as "Fenians and Bolsheviks" during a speech at an ALP convention. Atkinson mentioned "Fenianism" again when the title of Queen's Counsel was abolished. The title was later restored by the South Australian government in 2019.