The Nazca lines are large drawings made on the ground in the Nazca Desert of southern Peru. They were created between 500 BC and 500 AD by people who dug into the desert floor, removing small rocks and exposing dirt of a different color. There are two main time periods for the Nazca lines: the Paracas phase, from 400 to 200 BC, and the Nazca phase, from 200 BC to 500 AD. In the 21st century, archaeologists used drones to discover hundreds of new figures, and they believe more may still exist.

Most of the lines are straight, but some show pictures of animals and plants. Together, the lines are more than 1,300 kilometers long and cover an area about 50 square kilometers. The lines are usually 10 to 15 centimeters deep. They were made by removing the top layer of reddish-brown rocks covered in a type of iron, revealing a yellow-gray layer underneath. The width of the lines varies, but more than half are slightly more than 33 centimeters wide. In some places, they are as narrow as 30 centimeters, and in others, they are as wide as 1.8 meters.

Some of the Nazca lines form shapes that are best seen from the air, about 500 meters above the ground. However, they can also be seen from nearby hills or high places. The largest shapes are about 370 meters long. The dry, windless climate of the desert has helped preserve the lines over time. However, rare weather changes can temporarily affect the designs. By 2012, the lines were reported to be damaged due to people living on the land without permission.

The figures vary in detail. Many are simple lines or geometric shapes, while more than 70 show animals such as a hummingbird, spider, fish, condor, heron, monkey, lizard, dog, cat, and human. Other designs include trees and flowers. Scholars have different ideas about why the lines were made, but most believe they have religious importance. In 1994, the Nazca lines were named a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Location

The high, dry plateau extends over 80 km (50 mi) between the towns of Nazca and Palpa on the Pampas de Jumana, about 400 km (250 mi) south of Lima. The main road, PE-1S Panamericana Sur, runs alongside it. The greatest number of designs is found within a 10 by 4 km (6 by 2 mi) area, located south of the small village of San Miguel de la Pascana. In this region, the most noticeable geoglyphs can be seen.

Recorded history

The first written record of the Nazca Lines was made by Spanish explorer Pedro Cieza de León in his 1553 book. He described them as markers used for trails. In 1569, Luis Monzón reported seeing ancient ruins in Peru, including the remains of "roads."

Although the lines could be seen from nearby hills, the first people to report them in the twentieth century were Peruvian pilots, both military and civilian. In 1927, Peruvian archaeologist Toribio Mejía Xesspe saw the lines while hiking in the foothills. He talked about them at a conference in Lima in 1939.

American historian Paul Kosok is known as the first scholar to study the lines carefully. While in Peru in 1940–41 to research ancient irrigation systems, he flew over the lines and noticed one shaped like a bird. Another observation helped him see how lines aligned with the horizon during the winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere.

Kosok began studying how the lines might have been made and their purpose. He worked with Richard P. Schaedel, an American archaeologist, and Maria Reiche, a German mathematician and archaeologist from Lima, to understand their purpose. They suggested the figures might have been used as astronomical markers to show where the sun and other celestial objects rose on important dates. Many experts, including archaeologists, historians, and mathematicians, have studied the lines to learn their purpose.

It has been easier for scholars to determine how the lines were made than why they were made. Experts think the Nazca people used simple tools and surveying equipment to create the lines. Archaeological surveys found wooden stakes at the ends of some lines, supporting this idea. One stake was dated using carbon dating, which helped scientists estimate the age of the design complex.

In the early twenty-first century, Joe Nickell, an American investigator, recreated the figures using tools and technology available to the Nazca people. This work disproved a 1969 theory by Erich von Däniken, who claimed ancient astronauts built the lines. Nickell showed that a small group could recreate even the largest figures in a few days without help from the air. Scientific American called his work "remarkable in its exactness" when compared to the original lines.

Most of the lines are created by digging shallow trenches, 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 inches) deep. These trenches remove reddish-brown, iron oxide-covered pebbles from the surface of the Nazca Desert. This exposes light-colored clay beneath, which contrasts sharply with the surrounding area, making the lines visible. This clay layer contains lime, which hardens with morning mist, protecting the lines from wind and erosion.

The Nazca people used this technique to create hundreds of large, simple animal and human figures. The entire project covers nearly 450 km (170 miles), and the largest figures can be up to 370 meters (1,200 feet) long. Some measured figures include a hummingbird 93 meters (305 feet) long, a condor 134 meters (440 feet) long, a monkey 93 by 58 meters (305 by 190 feet), and a spider 47 meters (154 feet) long. The dry, windless, and stable climate of the Nazca region has helped preserve the lines.

In early 2011, a Japanese team from Yamagata University announced the discovery of two new small figures. One resembled a human head and was dated to the early Nazca culture or earlier. The other, undated, was an animal. The team has worked in the area since 2006 and found about 100 new geoglyphs by 2012. In 2012, the university announced plans to open a research center at the site for a 15-year study.

A 2019 article in Smithsonian magazine described work by a Japanese team that identified or re-identified some bird images. The team noted that birds are the most frequently depicted animals in the geoglyphs. They suggested that some bird images previously thought to be native species might actually resemble birds from non-desert habitats. They speculated that the choice of exotic birds might be connected to the purpose of the etching process.

In 2019, Yamagata University and IBM Japan announced the discovery of 143 new geoglyphs on the Nazca Pampa and nearby areas. One was found using machine learning methods.

In 2020, a line shaped like a cat was discovered on a steep hill. The location, prone to erosion, explains why it was not found earlier. Drones are helping researchers find more sites.

By 2022, 358 Nazca geoglyphs were known. Drones are now used to help anthropologists study the area, and more discoveries are expected.

In 2024, a team from Yamagata University’s Nazca Institute, working with IBM Research, used artificial intelligence (AI) to find 303 previously unknown geoglyphs near the Nazca Lines in Peru. These included parrots, cats, monkeys, killer whales, and even severed heads.

The field survey took place from September 2022 to February 2023, with ground checks approved by Peru’s Ministry of Culture. It required 1,440 labor hours and confirmed 303 new geoglyphs. A total of 1,200 labor hours were used to review AI-generated candidate images. Candidates were ranked into three groups, with 1,309 high-potential images identified.

Speculation regarding purpose

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Paul Kosok and Maria Reiche proposed that the lines were connected to astronomy and cosmology, similar to how other ancient cultures used monuments for such purposes. These lines were meant to function like an observatory, showing where the sun and other celestial bodies rose or set during the solstices. Many prehistoric indigenous cultures in the Americas and other regions built earthworks that combined astronomical observations with their religious beliefs. This was also true for the late Mississippian culture at Cahokia and other places in the United States. Another example is Stonehenge in England. Newgrange in Ireland has tombs that are aligned to let in light during the winter solstice.

Gerald Hawkins and Anthony Aveni, experts in archaeoastronomy, concluded in 1990 that the evidence was not enough to support such an astronomical explanation.

Maria Reiche believed that some or all of the figures represented constellations. By 1998, Phyllis B. Pitluga, a student of Reiche and a senior astronomer at the Adler Planetarium in Chicago, had determined that the animal figures were "not shapes of constellations, but of what might be called counter constellations, the irregularly-shaped dark patches within the twinkling expanse of the Milky Way." She claimed the giant spider figure is an anamorphic diagram of the constellation Orion, and that three of the straight lines leading to the figure were used to track the changing declinations of the three stars of Orion's Belt. Aveni later criticized her analysis, pointing out that she did not consider the other 12 lines of the figure and commented on her overall conclusions. For example:

I really had trouble finding good evidence to back up what she contended. Pitluga never laid out the criteria for selecting the lines she chose to measure, nor did she pay much attention to the archaeological data Clarkson and Silverman had unearthed. Her case did little justice to other information about the coastal cultures, save applying, with subtle contortions, Urton's representations of constellations from the highlands. As historian Jacquetta Hawkes might ask: was she getting the pampa she desired?

Some scholars argue that the role of shamanistic rituals within the Nazca culture could have influenced the creation of these geoglyphs throughout southern Peru.

Henri Stierlin, a Swiss art historian specializing in Egypt and the Middle East, published a book in 1983 linking the Nazca Lines to the production of ancient textiles that archaeologists have found wrapping mummies of the Paracas culture. He suggested that the people may have used the lines and trapezes as giant, primitive looms to fabricate the extremely long strings and wide pieces of textiles typical of the area. According to his theory, the figurative patterns (smaller and less common) were meant only for ritualistic purposes. This theory is not widely accepted, although scholars have noted similarities in patterns between the textiles and the Nazca Lines. They interpret these similarities as arising from the common culture.

The first systematic field study of the geoglyphs was made by Markus Reindel and Johny Cuadrado Isla. Since 1996, they have documented and excavated more than 650 sites. They compared the iconography of the lines to ceramics of the cultures. As archaeologists, they believe that the figurative motifs of geoglyphs can be dated to having been made between 600 and 200 BC.

In 1985, archaeologist Johan Reinhard published archaeological, ethnographic, and historical data demonstrating that worship of mountains and other water sources predominated in Nazca religion and economy from ancient to recent times. He theorized that the lines and figures were part of religious practices involving the worship of deities associated with the availability of water, which directly related to the success and productivity of crops. He interpreted the lines as sacred paths leading to places where these deities could be worshiped. The figures were symbols representing animals and objects meant to invoke the aid of the deities in supplying water. The precise meanings of many of the individual geoglyphs remain unknown.

Based on the results of geophysical investigations and the observation of geological faults, David Johnson argued that some geoglyphs followed the paths of aquifers from which aqueducts (or puquios) collected water.

Theories have suggested that the geometric lines could indicate water flow or irrigation schemes, or be a part of rituals to "summon" water, whereas spiders, birds, and plants may be fertility symbols. It has also been theorized that the lines could act as an astronomical calendar. Alberto Rossel Castro (1977) proposed a multi-functional interpretation of the geoglyphs. He classified them into three groups: the first appeared to be tracks connected to irrigation and field division, the second are lines that are axes connected with mounds and cairns, and the third was linked to astronomical interpretations.

Nicola Masini and Giuseppe Orefici have conducted research in Pampa de Atarco, about 10 km (6 mi) south of Pampa de Nasca, which they believe reveals a spatial, functional, and religious relationship between these geoglyphs and the temples of Cahuachi. In particular, using remote sensing techniques (from satellite to drone-based remote sensing), they investigated and found "five groups of geoglyphs, each of them characterized by a specific motif and shape, and associated with a distinct function." They identified a ceremonial one, characterized by meandering motifs. Another is related to calendrical purpose, as proved by the presence of radial centers aligned along the directions of winter solstice and equinox sunset. As have earlier scholars, the two Italians believe that the geoglyphs were the venues of events linked to the agriculture calendar. These also served to strengthen social cohesion among various groups of pilgrims, sharing common ancestors and religious beliefs.

Using a deep neural network trained on ImageNet and fine-tuned on so-called "relief-type" geoglyphs, a 2024 paper classified geoglyphs by walking route (either trail or road) and whether they were geometric (namely linear or areal) or figurative (whether line-type or relief-type). The authors hypothesize that, "since the main motifs of the line-type geoglyphs are wild animals, it is probable that ceremonial activities related to these animals were performed during pilgrimages" and that the line-type "can be regarded as planned public architecture." They also find that the relief-type geoglyphs, typically half the length of the line-type, could be recognized from walking trails: "The main motifs of the relief-type geoglyphs were humans, livestock, and human sacrifice, all of which depict scenes with humans or things modified by humans. Repeatedly observing relief-type geoglyphs from the trails probably facilitated sharing information about human activities related to these scenes."

Swiss pseudoscientific writer Erich von Däniken was fascinated by Nazca and was also a strong believer in extraterrestrial visitations. Von Däniken published a best-selling book titled Chariots of the Gods? in 1968. In this book he describes his theory that the lines were used as landing sites for UFOs. Däniken claimed that the Nazca lines site reflected visits by astronauts from other worlds, who became the creators of ancient civilizations. According to Von Däniken, Sanskrit literature describes a story in which an aircraft landed on Earth, and the local people watched in amazement as "human-like beings with golden, shimmering skins" walked, mined for metals and then flew away in their ship. These ancient astronauts supposedly soon returned where they built landing tracks and then eventually left forever. The amazed Native Americans then considered Nazca a place of pilgrimage and generations of their people built more figures and runways as an invitation for gods to think.

Preservation and environmental concerns

Conservationists who try to protect the Nazca Lines are worried about dangers like pollution and erosion in the area. The lines are shallow, only 10 to 30 cm (4 to 12 in) deep, and could be washed away. The Nazca region usually gets very little rain. However, changes in weather worldwide have increased the risk of heavy rain. The lines are not strong enough to handle heavy rain without damage.

— Viktoria Nikitzki of the Maria Reiche Centre

After heavy rains and mudslides in mid-February 2007, Mario Olaechea Aquije, an archaeological resident from Peru’s National Institute of Culture, and a team of experts checked the area. He said, “[T]he mudslides and heavy rains did not seem to have caused major harm to the Nazca Lines.” He also noted that the nearby Southern Pan-American Highway suffered damage, and “the damage to the roads shows how delicate these figures are.”

In 2012, people who lived on the land without permission damaged a Nazca-era cemetery and let their pigs roam on parts of the area.

In 2013, machines used in a limestone quarry destroyed a small part of a line and caused other damage.

In December 2014, Greenpeace activists set up a banner inside one of the geoglyphs, harming the site. Greenpeace apologized after the event, but one activist was found guilty and fined for the damage. This incident also brought attention to other damage caused by off-road vehicles from the Dakar Rally in 2012 and 2013, which can be seen in satellite images.

In January 2018, a truck driver was arrested but later released because there was no proof of intent other than a mistake. The driver left large tire marks on an area about 46 m by 107 m (150 by 350 feet), harming three geoglyphs.

In 2025, the Ministry of Culture reduced the land area of the Nazca Lines reserve by 42%, from about 5,600 square kilometers to roughly 3,200 square kilometers, based on new archaeological studies. This decision was criticized due to concerns about illegal mining in the area. The ministry later canceled the reduction.

Palpa glyphs

The Paracas culture is thought by some historians to be an earlier group that may have influenced the creation of the Nazca Lines. In 2018, archaeologists used drones to discover 25 large ground drawings in the Palpa province. These drawings are being linked to the Paracas culture. Many of them are older than the Nazca Lines by about 1,000 years. Some of the drawings show differences in their subjects and locations, such as being found on hillsides. One of the people who found them, Peruvian archaeologist Luis Jaime Castillo Butters, says that many of the new geoglyphs appear to show warriors. The Paracas culture is also connected to a famous geoglyph called the Paracas Candelabra.

Chinchas glyphs

In areas farther north of the Nazca region, in the Palpas region, and along the Peruvian coast, other glyphs from the Chincha culture have also been found.