The Ajanta Caves are 30 caves carved into rock that were built between the second century BCE and about 480 CE in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra state in India. These caves are a UNESCO World Heritage Site. They are widely considered masterpieces of Buddhist religious art, featuring paintings and sculptures that are among the finest examples of ancient Indian art. The paintings are especially notable for showing emotions through gestures, body positions, and shapes.
The caves were built in two stages. The first stage began around the second century BCE, and the second stage occurred from 400 to 650 CE, according to older records. Later research suggests the second stage may have taken place briefly between 460 and 480 CE.
The Ajanta Caves include ancient monasteries (called Viharas) and prayer halls (called Chaityas) carved into a rock wall that is 75 meters (246 feet) high. The caves also contain paintings that show stories about the past lives of the Buddha, including scenes from Aryasura's Jatakamala, and sculptures of Buddhist gods. Historical writings suggest the caves were used by monks as places to stay during the rainy season and by travelers and pilgrims as rest stops. Although many ancient Indian wall paintings have been lost, the paintings in Caves 1, 2, 16, and 17 at Ajanta are the largest surviving collection of ancient Indian wall art.
The Ajanta Caves are mentioned in writings by medieval Chinese Buddhist travelers. They were hidden under dense jungle until they were discovered in 1819 by a British officer named Captain John Smith during a tiger-hunting trip. The caves are located on the northern side of a U-shaped river valley in the Deccan Plateau, near the River Waghur. Waterfalls in the valley can be heard from outside the caves when the river is high.
Transport
Ajanta is an important place for tourists in Maharashtra, India. It is located about 59 kilometers (37 miles) from the city of Jalgaon, Maharashtra, 104 kilometers (65 miles) from Aurangabad, and 350 kilometers (220 miles) east-northeast of Mumbai. Nearby is the Ellora Caves, another UNESCO World Heritage Site. This site has caves from Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist traditions, with the Buddhist caves dating to a time similar to Ajanta. The artistic style of Ajanta can also be seen in other nearby caves, such as the Elephanta Caves, Aurangabad Caves, Shivleni Caves, and the cave temples of Karnataka. The closest airports are Jalgaon and Sambhaji Nagar, followed by Mumbai. The nearest railway stations are Jalgaon and Bhusawal.
History
The Ajanta Caves were built in two main stages. The first stage began around 200 BCE and ended around 100 CE. The second stage started many centuries later.
There are 36 known caves at the site. Some were discovered after the original numbering of the caves from 1 to 29. These later caves are labeled with letters, like 15A, which is between caves 15 and 16. The numbering system is for ease of reference and does not show the order in which the caves were built.
The earliest caves include numbers 9, 10, 12, 13, and 15A. The paintings in these caves show stories from the Jatakas, which are tales about the past lives of the Buddha. Later caves show the artistic style of the Gupta period, but there is debate about when the earliest caves were built. Walter Spink believes they were made between 100 BCE and 100 CE, likely under the Satavahana dynasty (230 BCE–220 CE). Others think they were built during the Maurya Empire (300 BCE–100 BCE). Caves 9 and 10 are stupa-shaped worship halls called chaitya-grihas. Caves 12, 13, and 15A are viharas, which are monastic dwellings. The first Satavahana-period caves did not include statues, focusing instead on the stupa.
According to Spink, after the Satavahana-period caves were built, the site was not developed further for many years until the mid-5th century. However, the early caves were still used during this time, as noted by the Chinese traveler Faxian around 400 CE.
The second stage of construction began in the 5th century. For a long time, it was thought that the later caves were built between the 4th and 7th centuries. However, recent research by Walter M. Spink suggests most of the work happened between 460 and 480 CE during the reign of Emperor Harishena of the Vākāṭaka dynasty. This view is now widely accepted by many art historians, though some scholars disagree.
The second phase of the Ajanta Caves is linked to the Mahāyāna tradition of Buddhism. These caves include numbers 1–8, 11, 14–29, and some may be extensions of earlier caves. Caves 19, 26, and 29 are chaitya-grihas, while the rest are viharas. The most detailed and elaborate caves were built during this period, including some restoration of the earlier caves.
Spink claims that the dates for this period can be determined with high accuracy. While some debate continues, his conclusions are now broadly accepted. The Archaeological Survey of India website still lists the traditional dating: "The second phase of paintings started around the 5th–6th centuries and continued for two centuries."
Spink suggests that construction at Ajanta stopped around 480 CE, a few years after Harishena’s death. Evidence shows the caves remained in use for some time, as seen by wear on pivot holes in caves built near 480 CE. This period marks the peak of classical Indian art, or India’s golden age. However, the Gupta Empire was weakening due to internal conflicts and attacks by the Hūṇas. The Vākāṭaka dynasty was one of the strongest powers in India at the time. Some Hūṇas, like the Alchon Huns, ruled nearby areas and may have connected Gandhara and the Western Deccan through cultural exchanges, as seen in Ajanta’s art.
Richard Cohen notes that the 7th-century Chinese traveler Xuanzang and medieval graffiti suggest the caves were known and used after their construction, though without a stable Buddhist community. The caves are mentioned in the 17th-century text Ain-i-Akbari as 24 rock-cut temples with notable idols.
On April 28, 1819, a British officer named John Smith, while hunting tigers, was shown the entrance to Cave 10 by a local shepherd. He asked nearby villagers to help clear the jungle around the caves. He saw painted faces on the ceilings and monastic halls, which helped him recognize the caves’ Buddhist origins. Smith scratched his name and the date on a painting of a bodhisattva. The inscription is now above eye level for adults. A paper on the caves by William Erskine was presented to the Bombay Literary Society in 1822.
Soon after their rediscovery, the caves became famous for their unique paintings and architecture. Many projects were made to copy the paintings. In 1848, the Royal Asiatic Society formed the "Bombay Cave Temple Commission" to study and preserve important sites in the Bombay Presidency, led by John Wilson. This effort became the foundation of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1861.
During the colonial era, the Ajanta site was part of the Hyderabad princely state, not British India. In the 1920s, Mir Osman Ali Khan, the last Nizam of Hyderabad, ordered the restoration of the artwork, turned the site into a museum, and built a road to attract tourists. These efforts led to early mismanagement and damage to the site. After India gained independence, the Maharashtra government improved access, transport, and management. Today, the modern Visitor Center has parking, restrooms, and buses that run regularly to the caves.
The Nizam’s Director of Archaeology hired Italian experts, Professor Lorenzo Cecconi and Count Orsini, to restore the caves. Cecconi and Orsini’s work was praised for its scientific approach, giving the caves a "fresh lease of life" for at least two centuries. However, later neglect caused the paintings to degrade again.
Since 1983, the Ajanta Caves have been a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Along with the Ellora Caves, they are now the most popular tourist attraction in Maharashtra. Crowds during holidays increase the risk to the caves, especially the paintings. In 2012, the Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation announced plans to improve the site further.
Sites and monasteries
The caves were carved from flood basalt and granite rock in a cliff, part of the Deccan Traps formed by volcanic eruptions at the end of the Cretaceous period. The rock layers are horizontal and vary in quality. This variation required artists to adjust their carving methods and plans in some areas. Over time, the uneven rock caused cracks and collapses, such as the lost portico of cave 1. Excavation began by cutting a narrow tunnel at the top of the cliff, which was then expanded downward and outward. Some caves, like the partially built vihara caves 21 through 24 and the incomplete cave 28, show this process.
Sculptors likely worked on both excavating the rock and creating detailed carvings of pillars, roofs, and idols. Inside the caves, sculpture and painting tasks were done at the same time. A grand gateway was carved at the top of the horseshoe-shaped gorge between caves 15 and 16, decorated with elephants on either side and a nāga, or protective snake deity. Similar techniques and artistic skills are seen in other Indian cave temples, such as those from Hinduism and Jainism, including the Ellora Caves, Ghatotkacha Caves, Elephanta Caves, Bagh Caves, Badami Caves, Aurangabad Caves, and Shivleni Caves.
Caves from the first period were funded by multiple donors to gain merit, as shown by inscriptions recording donations for parts of a single cave. Later caves were built as complete units by single patrons, such as local rulers or court elites, for merit in Buddhist beliefs, as seen in inscriptions like those in Cave 17. After Harisena’s death, smaller donors added small shrines between caves or statues to existing ones. Over 200 such shrines were carved, and up to 300 paintings were added in Cave 10 alone.
Most caves are vihara halls with square layouts. Smaller square dormitory cells are attached to the walls of each vihara. Many caves were carved during the second period, with a shrine or sanctuary added at the back, centered on a large Buddha statue and surrounded by detailed carvings of deities and reliefs. This change reflects the shift from Hinayana to Mahāyāna Buddhism. These caves are often called monasteries.
Inside the viharas, the central square space is defined by columns forming an open area. Long rectangular aisles surround this space, creating a cloister-like layout. Small square cells with niches are found along the walls, originally with wooden doors. The rear wall has a larger shrine room with a large Buddha statue.
Earlier viharas are simpler and lack shrines. Spink notes that the addition of shrines began in the second period, with many caves modified during or after their initial construction.
Cave 1 is one of the largest viharas and typical of later designs. Some caves, like Cave 16, lack a vestibule to the shrine, leading directly into the main hall. Cave 6 has two viharas stacked vertically, connected by stairs, with shrines on both levels.
Another type of hall is the narrower rectangular chaitya-griha, or "house of stupa." This hall has a central nave and two side aisles separated by pillars, with a stupa at the back. The stupa is surrounded by pillars and space for walking around it. Some caves have carved entrances with large windows for light. A colonnaded porch or verandah is often present, with an inner space running the width of the cave. The oldest worship halls at Ajanta date to the 2nd to 1st century BCE, and the newest to the late 5th century CE. Their architecture resembles Christian churches but lacks certain features like a crossing or chapel. These halls follow the cathedral-style design seen in older Indian rock-cut caves, such as the Lomas Rishi Cave near Gaya in Bihar, dated to the 3rd century BCE. These chaitya-griha are called prayer halls.
The four completed chaitya halls are caves 9 and 10 (early period) and caves 19 and 26 (later period). All have high ceilings and a central nave leading to the stupa, which allows walking behind it, a common Buddhist practice. The later halls have ribbed roofs carved from rock, reflecting timber designs, while earlier ones used actual timber, now lost. In caves 19 and 26, the stupa is flanked by large relief sculptures of the Buddha—standing in Cave 19 and seated in Cave 26. Cave 29 is a late, incomplete chaitya hall.
Columns in the first period are plain and simple, with octagonal shapes in chaitya halls. These were later painted with images of the Buddha, people, and monks. In the second period, columns became more varied, with changing profiles and elaborate carved capitals. Many columns are covered in floral motifs and Mahayana deities, some fluted or fully decorated, as seen in Cave 1.
Paintings
Most of the Ajanta caves and nearly all the mural paintings were created about 600 years apart during two different building periods. The paintings in the Ajanta caves mostly tell stories from the Jataka tales. These are Buddhist stories that describe the Buddha’s past lives. These stories include old lessons and traditions that also appear in Hindu and Jain texts. The Jataka tales show the Buddha’s life and sacrifices in many of his past lives, where he is shown as an animal or a human.
Murals from both the earlier and later groups of caves have survived. Some pieces from the earlier caves (Caves 10 and 11) are rare examples of ancient Indian painting from this time. These show that Indian painters had already developed a naturalistic style by the Sātavāhana period, creating scenes with many people similar to carvings on the Sāñcī toraņa crossbars. Some connections to the art of Gandhara are also visible, suggesting shared artistic styles.
Four of the later caves have large, well-preserved murals. James Harle says these paintings represent Indian mural art to people who are not experts and show the great achievements of Gupta and Indian art. These murals are divided into two styles, with the most famous in Caves 16 and 17, and others in Caves 1 and 2. Earlier ideas suggested the later paintings were a century older, but Spink’s research places them in the 5th century, possibly made at the same time as the others but with a different style or from a different region. The Ajanta frescoes are classic paintings created by skilled artists. They are rich, detailed, and celebrate physical beauty, which surprised early Western observers who thought the caves were meant for religious worship and monastic life.
The paintings are made in "dry fresco," painted on dry plaster instead of wet plaster. All the paintings were likely created by artists supported by knowledgeable patrons from urban areas. Literary sources show that painting was widely practiced and admired during the Gupta period. Unlike many Indian murals, these paintings do not use horizontal bands like a frieze but instead show large scenes spreading out from a central figure or group. Ceilings also have complex decorative designs inspired by sculpture. In Cave 1, which Spink says was commissioned by Harisena, the paintings focus on Jataka tales showing the Buddha’s past lives as a king, not as an animal. These scenes depict the Buddha preparing to leave royal life.
In general, the later caves were painted on completed areas as other parts of the caves were still being excavated, as seen in Caves 2 and 16. According to Spink’s timeline, work on the caves stopped in 478 after a short period of activity, which explains why some areas, like Cave 4 and the shrine in Cave 17, lack paintings. The shrine in Cave 17 was plastered in preparation for paintings that were never made.
Spink's chronology and cave history
Walter Spink has created a detailed and specific timeline for the second period of work at the Ajanta Caves. Unlike earlier scholars, he places this period entirely in the 5th century. His conclusions are based on evidence such as inscriptions, artistic style, the dating of nearby cave temples, comparisons of historical dynasties, and the unfinished parts of the caves. Spink believes the earlier group of caves, which other scholars dated roughly to between 100 BCE and 100 CE, were completely abandoned and remained unused for over three centuries. This changed during the reign of Harishena, a Hindu emperor of the Vakataka Dynasty, who ruled from 460 to 477. Harishena expanded the Central Indian Vakataka Empire to include parts of the east coast of India. At the same time, the Gupta Empire ruled northern India, and the Pallava Dynasty controlled much of the south.
According to Spink, Harishena encouraged his associates, including his prime minister Varahadeva and Upendragupta, the sub-king whose territory included Ajanta, to dig new caves. These caves were individually commissioned, and some had inscriptions recording the donations. This work began around 462 and was mostly paused in 468 due to threats from the neighboring Asmaka kings. After this, work continued only on Caves 1, which Harishena commissioned, and Caves 17–20, which Upendragupta commissioned. In 472, work was completely suspended during a period Spink calls "the Hiatus," which lasted until about 475. By this time, the Asmakas had taken control of the region from Upendragupta.
Work resumed after the Hiatus but was interrupted again by Harishena’s death in 477. Major excavation stopped except at Cave 26, which the Asmakas were funding. The Asmakas later rebelled against Harishena’s son, leading to the end of the Vakataka Dynasty. Between 478 and 480 CE, major excavation by important patrons was replaced by smaller additions, such as statues and small shrines, placed in existing caves. These were commissioned by less powerful individuals, including some monks, who had not previously been able to contribute to large projects. Spink notes that after 480, no new images were created at the site. However, a Rashtrakuta inscription outside Cave 26, dated to the end of the 7th or early 8th century, suggests the caves were not abandoned until then.
Spink avoids using "circa" in his dates, instead stating that a margin of error of one or two years should be allowed in all cases. The Ajanta Caves were built during a time when both the Buddha and Hindu gods were honored in Indian culture. Spink and other scholars believe the royal Vakataka sponsors of the caves likely worshipped both Hindu and Buddhist gods. This is supported by inscriptions showing these rulers, who were otherwise known as Hindu devotees, made Buddhist dedications to the caves. Spink explains that worshipping both the Buddha and Hindu gods may explain why Varahadeva and Harishena were involved in the project, even though Harishena was a Hindu like earlier Vakataka kings.
A terracotta plaque of Mahishasuramardini, also known as Durga, was found in a recently excavated burnt-brick vihara monastery near the Ajanta Caves on the right bank of the Waghora River. This suggests the deity may have been worshipped by the artisans working on the site. Yuko Yokoschi and Walter Spink note that 5th-century artifacts found near the caves indicate the project involved a large number of builders.
Cave 1
Cave 1 is located on the eastern side of the horseshoe-shaped scarp and is the first cave visitors see. When it was first built, it was not as important as other caves, being at the end of the row. According to Spink, it was one of the last caves to be excavated, after the best locations had already been used. It was never fully used for worship, as shown by the lack of black stains from oil lamps on the base of the central shrine and the absence of damage to the paintings that would have occurred if the hooks used for hanging garlands had been used over time. Spink notes that the Vākāṭaka Emperor Harishena supported the construction, which is reflected in the emphasis on royal imagery in the cave, including Jataka tales that describe the Buddha’s past lives as a king.
The cliff here is steeper than at other caves, so to create a tall and grand entrance, workers carved deeply into the slope, forming a large courtyard in front. Originally, there was a portico with columns in front of the facade, which was partially intact in the 1880s, but it later collapsed. The remains, which had fine carvings, were carelessly thrown down the slope into the river and lost.
Cave 1 (35.7 m × 27.6 m) has one of the most detailed carved facades, with relief sculptures on the top parts and ridges, and most surfaces decorated with intricate carvings. Scenes from the Buddha’s life and decorative patterns are carved into the walls. A two-pillared portico, visible in 19th-century photographs, no longer exists. The cave has a forecourt with cells on either side, each with a raised platform. The porch has simple cells at both ends, but the lack of pillared vestibules suggests it was not built during the later phase of Ajanta, when such features became common. Many murals once covered the porch, with fragments remaining, especially on the ceiling. There are three doorways: one in the center and two on the sides. Two square windows were carved between the doorways to allow more light into the cave.
Each wall of the hall inside is nearly 40 feet (12 m) long and 20 feet (6.1 m) high. Twelve pillars form a square arrangement inside, supporting the ceiling and creating open spaces along the walls. A shrine carved into the rear wall holds a seated image of the Buddha, his hands in the Dhammacakkappavattana mudra. There are four cells on the left, rear, and right walls, but none at the ends of the rear aisle due to rock cracks.
The paintings in Cave 1 cover the walls and ceilings. They are mostly preserved, though the full design was never completed. The scenes include teaching, worship, and decorative elements, such as stories from the Jataka tales about the Buddha’s past lives as a bodhisattva, the life of Gautama Buddha, and his veneration. The two most famous painted images at Ajanta are the two larger-than-life figures of the protective bodhisattvas Padmapani and Vajrapani on either side of the entrance to the Buddha shrine. Other important frescoes in Cave 1 include the Sibi, Sankhapala, Mahajanaka, Mahaummagga, and Champeyya Jataka tales. The cave paintings also show the Temptation of Mara, the miracle of Sravasti where the Buddha appears in many forms at once, the story of Nanda, and the story of Siddhartha and Yasodhara.
Cave 2
Cave 2, located next to Cave 1, is famous for its preserved paintings on walls, ceilings, and pillars. It looks similar to Cave 1 and is in better condition. This cave is known for its focus on feminine themes, detailed rock carvings, and painted artwork. However, the artwork is incomplete and not entirely consistent. A 5th-century fresco in this cave shows children in a school, with students in the front rows listening to a teacher and students in the back row appearing distracted.
Cave 2 (35.7 meters × 21.6 meters) was begun in the 460s but mostly carved between 475 and 477 CE. It was likely sponsored and influenced by a woman connected to Emperor Harisena. The cave has a porch that differs from Cave 1, and the carvings on the front are also different. Strong pillars support the cave and are decorated with designs. The front porch includes cells supported by pillared vestibules on both sides.
The hall contains four colonnades that hold up the ceiling and surround a square in the center. Each side of the square aligns with the hall’s walls, creating an aisle between them. The colonnades have rock beams above and below. The capitals (top parts of the pillars) are carved and painted with decorative themes, including ornamental, human, animal, plant, and semi-divine images. A major carving shows goddess Hariti, a Buddhist deity who was once a demoness associated with disease and harm to children but was later converted by the Buddha into a protector of fertility and babies.
The paintings on the ceilings and walls of Cave 2 have been widely published. They depict stories such as the Hamsa, Vidhurapandita, Ruru, Kshanti Jataka, and the Purna Avadhana. Other frescoes show the miracle of Sravasti, Ashtabhaya Avalokitesvara, and the dream of Maya. Unlike the stories in Cave 1, which focus on kingship, the stories in Cave 2 highlight many noble and powerful women in important roles, suggesting the patron may have been an unknown woman. The rear wall of the porch has a central doorway leading into the hall. On either side of the door are square windows to allow light into the interior.
Cave 3
Cave 3 is just the beginning of an excavation. According to Spink, it was started at the very end of the final period of work and quickly abandoned. This monastery is not complete, and only the early digging of the pillared veranda has been done. The cave was one of the last projects to begin at the site. Its date is dated to around 477 CE, just before the sudden death of Emperor Harisena. The work stopped after the digging out of a rough entrance to the hall.
Cave 4
Cave 4, a Vihara, was supported by people from Mathura. The sponsor was likely a wealthy devotee, not a noble or court official. This is the largest vihara in the first group of caves, showing the sponsor had great wealth and influence without being a government official. The cave was built at a higher level, possibly because the rock quality was better there. Another possibility is that planners wanted to create a large cistern on the left side for more residents, matching the one on the right. This idea is supported by the height of the forward cells on the left.
The Archaeological Survey of India dates this cave to the 6th century CE. However, Spink believes the cave was built about 100 years earlier, around 463 CE, based on its construction style and other inscriptions. Evidence shows the ceiling of the central hall collapsed dramatically in the 6th century, likely due to the cave’s large size and weak rock. Later, artists tried to fix this by digging deeper into the basalt lava to raise the ceiling.
The cave has a square shape and includes a large statue of the Buddha in a preaching pose, surrounded by bodhisattvas and celestial nymphs above. It has a verandah, a hypostylar hall, a sanctum with an antechamber, and several unfinished cells. This monastery is the largest among the Ajanta caves, covering nearly 970 square meters (35 meters by 28 meters). The door frame is intricately carved, with a bodhisattva on the right side symbolizing relief from the Eight Great Perils. The rear wall of the verandah features a panel depicting the litany of Avalokiteśvara. The ceiling collapse likely caused the cave to remain incomplete. Only the Buddha’s statue and major sculptures were finished, while other elements were left unpainted, as the sponsor focused on the most important features.
Cave 5
Cave 5 is an unfinished project that was originally planned as a monastery, with dimensions of 10.32 meters by 16.8 meters. This cave has no sculptures or other architectural features except for the door frame. The frame includes elaborate carvings of female figures and mythical makara creatures, which appear in Indian art from ancient and medieval times. Construction of the cave likely began around 465 CE but was stopped because the rock had geological flaws. Work on the cave was later restarted in 475 CE after the Asmakas people resumed efforts at the Ajanta caves. However, the project was abandoned again when the artists and the sponsor changed plans to focus on expanding Cave 6, which is located next to Cave 5.
Cave 6
Cave 6 is a two-level monastery measuring 16.85 meters by 18.07 meters. It includes a sanctum and a hall on both levels. The lower level has pillars and attached cells, while the upper hall also includes smaller rooms. Both levels’ sanctums contain a statue of the Buddha in the teaching posture. Elsewhere, the Buddha is shown in different hand gestures called mudras. The lower level’s walls show scenes from the Miracle of Sravasti and the Temptation of Mara. Only the lower floor of Cave 6 was completed. The upper floor remained unfinished and contains private votive sculptures and a shrine with a Buddha statue.
The lower level of Cave 6 was likely the first part built during the second stage of construction. This stage reflected the Mahayana Buddhist theme and the Vakataka artistic revival, which began about four centuries after earlier Hinayana-style construction. The upper level was not planned initially and was added later, possibly when builders stopped working on the nearby geologically unstable Cave 5. Both levels show signs of rough construction and errors. Work on Cave 6 likely occurred between 460 and 470 CE, and it is the first cave to include Bodhisattvas. The upper level’s construction probably began around 465 CE and extended deeper into the rock than the lower level.
The walls and door frames of both levels are finely carved, showing images of mythical creatures like makaras, apsaras, elephants, and figures in welcoming gestures. The upper level is notable for depicting a devotee kneeling at the Buddha’s feet, showing early devotional practices by the 5th century. The large Buddha statue in the shrine has an ornate throne but was quickly completed in 477 or 478 CE, after the death of King Harisena. The shrine’s antechamber includes an unfinished group of statues depicting the Six Buddhas of the Past, with only five completed. This design may have been inspired by similar carvings in the Bagh Caves of Madhya Pradesh.
Cave 7
Cave 7 is a monastery that measures 15.55 meters by 31.25 meters. It has only one floor. The cave includes a main room, a hall with eight pillars shaped like octagons, and eight small rooms for monks. In the main room, a statue of the Buddha is shown in a posture of teaching. Many art panels inside the cave show scenes from Buddhist stories, such as the Buddha with Nagamuchalinda and the Miracle of Sravasti.
The front of Cave 7 has a grand entrance with two porticos. The veranda has eight pillars divided into two types. One type has a base shaped like an octagon, with a top part shaped like an amalaka and a lotus. The other type lacks a distinct base and has an octagonal shaft with a plain top. The veranda opens into an antechamber. On the left side of the antechamber, there are sculptures of 25 seated Buddhas in different postures and expressions. On the right side, there are 58 seated Buddha reliefs in various postures, all placed on lotus flowers. These images show the Miracle of Sravasti from Buddhist teachings. At the bottom of the antechamber, two Nagas (serpents with hoods) are carved holding a blooming lotus stalk. The antechamber leads to the main room through a doorway. On this doorway, two female figures are carved standing on makaras (mythical sea creatures). Inside the main room, the Buddha is seated on a lion throne in a cross-legged posture. Bodhisattva figures surround the Buddha, along with two attendants holding chauris (fly-whisks) and flying apsaras above.
Cave 7 was not dug very deep into the cliff, possibly because of weak rock. It includes two porticos, a shrine room with an antechamber, and no central hall. Some small rooms were added. The artwork in the cave was likely updated over time. The first version of the cave was completed around 469 CE. Later, between 476 and 478 CE, many Buddhas were added and painted.
Cave 8
Cave 8 is an unfinished monastery with dimensions of 15.24 meters by 24.64 meters. For many decades during the 20th century, this cave was used as a storage and generator room. It is located at river level, making it easily accessible and lower than other caves. According to the Archaeological Survey of India, it may be one of the earliest monasteries. Much of its front is damaged, likely caused by a landslide. Excavation of the cave was difficult, and it may have been abandoned after a layer of minerals made it hard to create stable carvings.
Spink suggests that Cave 8 might be the earliest cave from the second period, with its shrine added later. He believes it could be the oldest Mahayana monastery found in India. The statue inside may not have been carved from the rock but was instead placed there separately, as it is no longer present. The cave was painted, but only small traces of the paint remain.
Cave 9
Caves 9 and 10 are two chaitya, or worship halls, built between the 2nd and 1st century BCE. These are the first structures built at the site, though both were later modified during the second period of construction in the 5th century CE.
Cave 9 measures 18.24 meters by 8.04 meters, and Cave 10 measures 30.5 meters by 12.2 meters. Although Cave 9 is smaller, it has more complex features. Spink believes Cave 10 may have been built earlier, around the 1st century BCE, while Cave 9 was constructed about 100 years later. Smaller shrines, called caves 9A to 9D and 10A, were added during the second period of construction. These were built by individuals. The arch of Cave 9 has remaining details that suggest it once had wooden parts.
The cave has an apsidal shape, with a central area called a nave, a side aisle, and an apse that contains an icon. Its design resembles European cathedrals built many centuries later. The aisle has 23 pillars. The ceiling is vaulted. A stupa, or dome-shaped structure, is located at the center of the apse. A path surrounds the stupa, which sits on a tall, cylindrical base. On the left wall, people are shown approaching the stupa, indicating a tradition of devotion.
Spink notes that paintings in this cave, including standing Buddhas on the pillars, were added in the 5th century. Above the pillars and behind the stupa are colorful images of the Buddha, with Padmapani and Vajrapani standing beside him. These figures wear jewelry, while yogis, citizens, and Buddhist monks are shown offering garlands and gifts. Men in the paintings wear dhotis and turbans. The walls also include friezes depicting Jataka tales, which likely date to the early Hinayana phase of construction. Some panels and reliefs inside and outside Cave 10 lack clear narratives but are connected to Buddhist legends. These may have been added by different monks and donors in the 5th century in available spaces. The religious focus and worship hall design of Cave 9 likely led to the addition of four smaller shrines, 9A, 9B, 9C, and 9D, between Caves 9 and 10.
Cave 10
Cave 10 is a large prayer hall called a Chaitya. It was built around the 1st century BCE, along with nearby vihara cave No. 12. These two caves are among the earliest in the Ajanta complex. The hall has a large central room shaped like a half-circle, with 39 octagonal pillars. A central aisle separates the room from a smaller area at the end, where a stupa was placed for worship. The stupa includes a path for walking around it, called a pradakshina patha.
Cave 10 is important because its size shows that Buddhism had a strong influence in South Asia by the 1st century BCE. This influence continued, though it weakened, through the 5th century CE. The cave also has inscriptions that describe parts of the cave as "gifts of prasada" from different people. This suggests the cave was built with support from a community, not just one ruler or official. In April 1819, a British officer named John Smith discovered the cave’s arch and shared its existence with the Western world.
Other caves in western India were built around the same time with royal support. The earliest Chaitya caves are believed to be Cave 9 at Kondivite Caves, followed by Cave 12 at Bhaja Caves. These predate Cave 10 at Ajanta. After Cave 10, the order includes Cave 3 at Pitalkhora, Cave 1 at Kondana Caves, Cave 9 at Ajanta (with more detailed designs, possibly built about a century later), Cave 18 at Nasik Caves, and Cave 7 at Bedse Caves. The final and most complete Chaitya is the Great Chaitya at Karla Caves.
Cave 10 has a Sanskrit inscription written in Brahmi script, which is important for archaeologists. This inscription is the oldest at Ajanta and is dated to about the 2nd century BCE. It reads: "The gift of a cave-façade by Vasisthiputra Katahadi."
The paintings in Cave 10 include some from the earliest period, many from a later restoration project, and many smaller images added later for religious purposes around 479–480 CE. These later images mostly show Buddhas and include donor names. They were placed in less visible areas after the main paintings were completed. In total, there may have been over 300 such images, created by many different artists. The paintings cover two periods and often tell stories from the Jataka tales in a clockwise order. Both early and later Buddhist styles are visible, though the older ones are more faded. Two notable stories include the Saddanta Jataka, about a six-tusked elephant, and the Shyama Jataka, about a man who cared for his blind parents. Stella Kramrisch, an expert, says the oldest paintings in Cave 10 date to about 100 BCE. Their design is similar to artwork from the same time at Sanchi and Amaravati.
Cave 11
Cave 11 is a monastery (19.87 × 17.35 meters) built around 462 to 478. The cave’s veranda has pillars with eight-sided shafts and square bases. The ceiling of the veranda shows floral designs and worn carvings. Only the center section is clearly visible, showing the Buddha seated with people lining up to pray before him. Inside, the cave has a hall with a long stone bench that leads into six rooms. Similar stone benches are found in the Nasik Caves. Another pillared verandah ends in a chamber with a seated Buddha beside an incomplete stupa and includes four small rooms.
The cave contains a few paintings of Bodhisattvas and the Buddha. Among these, the Padmapani, a group of people praying together, a pair of peafowl, and a painting of a female figure are the best-preserved. The chamber in this cave may be one of the last structures built at Ajanta, as it includes a path for walking around the seated Buddha.
Cave 12
According to the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Cave 12 is an early Hinayana (Theravada) monastery measuring 14.9 meters by 17.82 meters. It dates back to the 2nd to 1st century BCE. However, Spink dates it to the 1st century BCE.
The cave is damaged, with its front wall completely collapsed. Inside, three sides of the cave contain twelve cells, and each cell has two stone beds.
Cave 13
Cave 13 is a small monastery from early times, made up of a hall with seven cells. Each cell has two stone beds, all carved from the rock. These beds were created for monks to use. Gupte and Mahajan believe these caves were built about 200 to 300 years later than the estimate given by ASI, placing their construction between the 1st and 2nd centuries CE.
Cave 14
Cave 14 is an unfinished monastery measuring 13.43 meters by 19.28 meters. It is carved higher up than Cave 13, and its entrance door frame features sala bhanjikas.
Cave 15
Cave 15 is a more complete monastery, measuring 19.62 meters by 15.98 meters. Evidence suggests that paintings once existed in this cave. The structure includes a hall with eight cells that ends in a sanctum, along with an antechamber and a verandah supported by pillars. Reliefs on the walls depict the Buddha, and the Buddha in the sanctum is shown seated in the Simhasana posture. The door frame of Cave 15 features carvings of pigeons eating grain.
Cave 15A
Cave 15A is the smallest cave, with a small central hall and one cell on each side. Its entrance is located just to the right of the entrance to Cave 16, which is decorated with elephant images. This cave is an ancient Hinayana site, featuring three cells that open around a very small central hall. The doors have a rail and arch design. There was an inscription written in an ancient script, but the script is no longer readable.
Cave 16
Cave 16 is located in an important position near the middle of the site. It was sponsored by Varahadeva, a minister of the Vakataka king Harishena, who ruled around 475 to 500 CE. Varahadeva followed Buddhism and dedicated the cave to a group of monks. An inscription inside the cave expresses his wish that "the entire world (…) enter that peaceful and noble state free from sorrow and disease." It also shows his devotion to Buddhism: "regarding the sacred law as his only companion, (he was) extremely devoted to the Buddha, the teacher of the world." Spink suggests that Varahadeva likely respected both the Buddha and Hindu gods, as he mentions his Hindu heritage in an inscription at the nearby Ghatotkacha Cave. The 7th-century Chinese traveler Xuan Zang described Cave 16 as the entrance to the site.
Cave 16 (19.5 m × 22.25 m × 4.6 m) had a major influence on the architecture of the entire site. Spink and other scholars refer to it as the "crucial cave" because it helps determine the timeline of the second and final stages of the site’s construction. Cave 16 is a Mahayana monastery with a standard layout: a main doorway, two windows, and two aisle doorways. The veranda of the monastery is 19.5 m × 3 m, while the main hall is nearly a perfect square with sides measuring 19.5 m.
The paintings inside Cave 16 are numerous. They include stories from various Jataka tales, such as the Hasti, Mahaummagga, and Sutasoma fables. Other frescoes depict scenes like the conversion of Nanda, the miracle of Sravasti, Sujata’s offering, Asita’s visit, Maya’s dream, the story of Trapusha and Bhallika, and the ploughing festival. The Hasti Jataka frescoes show a Bodhisattva elephant who learns of a starving group of people. The elephant tells them to find food below a cliff and then sacrifices himself by jumping off the cliff to save them. These frescoes are located immediately to the left of the entrance, in the front corridor, and the story follows a clockwise direction.
The Mahaummagga Jataka frescoes are on the left wall of the corridor. They tell the story of a child Bodhisattva. Nearby, the corridor also shows the legend of Nanda, the Buddha’s half-brother. The scene depicts one of the two major versions of Nanda’s story: Nanda wants to live a sensuous life with his new wife, and the Buddha takes him to heaven and hell to show the dangers of such a life. After these frescoes, the cave displays images of Manushi Buddhas, followed by flying figures offering gifts to the Buddha and the Buddha seated in a teaching posture with a dharma chakra mudra.
On the right wall of the corridor are scenes from the life of the Buddha. These include Sujata offering food to the Buddha in a white dress, Tapussa and Bhallika standing next to the Buddha after giving him wheat and honey, the future Buddha sitting alone under a tree, and the Buddha at a ploughing festival. One mural shows the Buddha’s parents trying to stop him from becoming a monk. Another shows the Buddha at the palace surrounded by men in dhotis and women in saris, as his behavior reveals the four signs that he will leave his life of luxury. On this side of the corridor are also paintings of the future Buddha as a baby with the sage Asita, who has the appearance of a rishi. According to Spink, some of the paintings in Cave 16 were left unfinished.
Cave 17
Cave 17 (34.5 m × 25.63 m), along with Cave 16, which has two large stone elephants at the entrance, and Cave 26, which contains a depiction of the sleeping Buddha, were among many caves funded by the Hindu Vakataka prime minister Varahadeva. Cave 17 also had additional donors, such as the local king Upendragupta, as noted in an inscription found inside the cave.
The cave features a large and highly advanced vihara design, along with some of the best-preserved and most famous paintings among all the caves. While Cave 16 is known for showing scenes from the life of the Buddha, the paintings in Cave 17 have drawn much attention for highlighting human virtues through stories from the Jataka tales. These paintings include detailed and realistic elements, which Stella Kramrisch describes as "lavish elegance" created by skilled artisans. The ancient artists, according to Kramrisch, showed wind moving over crops by depicting them bending in waves and used rhythmic patterns to visually tell stories that convey spiritual ideas.
The monastery in Cave 17 includes a colonnaded porch, several pillars with unique styles, a peristyle design for the interior hall, a shrine antechamber located deep within the cave, larger windows and doors for more light, and extensive carvings of Indian gods and goddesses. The hall of the monastery is a square measuring 380.53 square meters (4,096.0 square feet) and has 20 pillars. The large scale of the carvings caused some errors, as noted by Spink, including removing too much rock to shape the walls, which made the cave extend outward toward the back.
Cave 17 contains one long inscription by King Upendragupta, in which he explains that he spent a great deal of wealth to build this vihara, bringing satisfaction to religious devotees. In total, Upendragupta is known to have funded at least five caves in Ajanta. However, he may have spent too much on religious projects, as he was eventually defeated in attacks by the Asmaka.
Cave 17 has thirty major murals. The paintings show the Buddha in various forms and postures, including Vipasyi, Sikhi, Visvabhu, Krakuchchanda, Kanakamuni, Kashyapa, and Sakyamuni. Other depictions include Avalokitesvara, the story of Udayin and Gupta, the story of Nalagiri, the Wheel of Life, a panel celebrating ancient Indian musicians, and a panel showing the tale of Prince Simhala’s journey to Sri Lanka. The narrative frescoes illustrate Jataka tales such as Shaddanta, Hasti, Hamsa, Vessantara, Sutasoma, Mahakapi (in two versions), Sarabhamiga, Machchha, Matiposaka, Shyama, Mahisha, Valahassa, Sibi, Ruru, and Nigrodamiga. These paintings reflect the customs and society of the early 1st millennium. They include scenes such as a shipwreck, a princess applying makeup, lovers in romantic settings, and a couple drinking wine. Some frescoes show key characters from Jataka tales by including animals and attendants in the same scene.
Cave 18
Cave 18 is a small rectangular area measuring 3.38 meters by 11.66 meters. It has two octagonal pillars and connects to another cell. Its role is unclear.
Cave 19 (5th century CE)
Cave 19 is a worship hall (chaitya griha, 16.05 × 7.09 m) from the fifth century CE. Inside, painted images of the Buddha are shown in different postures. Visitors now enter the hall through what was once a carved room. This suggests the original design included a mandala-style courtyard for worshippers to gather, along with an entrance and facade, though these parts are no longer visible. Cave 19 is known for its sculptures, including Naga figures with serpent canopies protecting the Buddha, similar to those in ancient Jain and Hindu traditions. The sides of the hall feature Yaksha dwarapala (guardian) images, flying couples, seated and standing Buddhas, and evidence that the ceiling was once painted.
Cave 19 was influenced by the design of Cave 9. It marked a change from earlier Hinayana traditions by carving a Buddha into the stupa. Scholars believe this decision shows the cave’s builders had high-level connections in the 5th-century Mahayana Buddhist movement, as the ruling family was from the Shaivism Hindu tradition. The cave’s excavation and stupa were likely completed by 467 CE, with artistic work continuing into the early 470s. However, the cave remained unfinished when it was dedicated in 471 CE.
The entrance of the worship hall is decorated with two round pillars featuring carved floral patterns and garlands. These pillars support a porch with an inverted lotus capital connected to an amalaka. On the left side, a standing Buddha in a blessing gesture is shown with a devotee prostrating at his feet. On the right, a relief depicts a woman holding a pitcher and touching her chin. Above, a seated Buddha is shown in a meditating pose. Near the entrance, a "Mother and Child" sculpture is displayed, with a figure holding a begging bowl (representing the Buddha) and his wife and son watching nearby.
The worship hall is apsidal, with 15 pillars dividing it into two side aisles and a central nave. The round pillars have floral reliefs and fluted shafts topped with Buddha images in their capitals. Nearby, friezes of elephants, horses, and flying apsaras are found, reflecting the Gupta Empire’s artistic style. Scholars like Sharma note similarities to the Karla Caves’ Great Chaitya, built in the 2nd century CE, suggesting Cave 19 may have been modeled after it.
The walls and ceilings of the side aisles are covered with paintings. These depict the Buddha, flowers, and the "Mother and Child" story again on the left aisle.
Cave 20
Cave 20 is a monastery hall (16.2 × 17.91 m) built in the 5th century. According to Spink, construction began in the 460s under King Upendragupta, who wanted to "make the great tree of religious merit grow." Work on Cave 20 happened at the same time as other caves. Spink notes that Cave 20 has beautiful details, but it was not as important as Caves 17 and 19. Construction paused and resumed in the following decade.
The vihara includes a sanctum, four monk cells, and a pillared verandah with two stone windows for light. Before entering the main hall, two Buddhas are carved above the window and beside a side cell. The main hall’s ceiling has traces of old paintings. The sanctum Buddha is shown in a preaching position. The cave is famous for a sculpture of seven Buddhas with attendants on its lintel. A dedicatory Sanskrit inscription in Brahmi script is located in the verandah, and the cave is called a mandapa.
Many carvings in Cave 20 resemble those in Cave 19 and, to a lesser extent, Cave 17. This may be because the same architects and artisans worked on all three caves. The door frames in Cave 20 are partially structural, a feature unique to the Ajanta site. Decorations are also innovative, such as a scene showing the Buddha seated on two pillows with a richly decorated mango tree behind him, as noted by Spink.
Cave 21
Cave 21 is a large hall measuring 29.56 meters by 28.03 meters. It includes twelve rooms carved into the rock for monks, a special room called a sanctum, and twelve areas with pillars and decorative columns known as verandahs. The decorative columns feature carvings of animals and flowers. The pillars show images of apsaras, Nagaraja, Nagarani, and people bowing with their hands joined in a gesture called the Anjali mudra. Evidence suggests the hall was once completely painted. In the sanctum, a statue of the Buddha is shown in a posture representing teaching.
Cave 22
Cave 22 is a small monastery measuring 12.72 meters by 11.58 meters. It has a narrow veranda and four unfinished rooms. The cave is located at a higher level. Visitors must climb a set of steps to reach it. Inside, the Buddha is shown in a seated position. The painted images in Cave 22 depict Manushi-Buddhas alongside Maitreya. A vertical support on the left side of the veranda has a written message in Sanskrit. The inscription is partially damaged. The readable parts mention that this is a "generous donation of a mandapa by Jayata," referring to Jayata's family as "a great Upasaka," and conclude with "may the merit of this be for excellent knowledge to all living beings, starting with father and mother."
Cave 23
Cave 23 is also unfinished. It has a hall that measures 28.32 meters by 22.52 meters. The design of Cave 23 is similar to that of Cave 21. However, Cave 23 is different in its pillar decorations and the naga doorkeepers.
Cave 24
Cave 24 is similar to Cave 21, but it is larger and also unfinished. It contains the second-largest monastery hall (29.3 × 29.3 meters) after Cave 4. This cave is important to studies of the site because it shows how different groups of workers completed their tasks at the same time. Rooms were built as soon as the aisle was dug, while the main hall and sanctum were still being constructed. The planning for Cave 24 began in 467 CE, but construction likely started in 475 CE with support from Buddhabhadra. Work stopped suddenly in 477 CE after the sponsor king, Harisena, died. This cave is significant because it has one of the most complex capitals on a pillar at the Ajanta site, showing how artists improved their skills while working with the rock. Artists carved fourteen detailed miniature figures on the central panel of the right center porch pillar, even though the space was small and the lighting was dim. The medallion reliefs in Cave 24 include images of loving couples and human-like figures, unlike the flower designs found in earlier parts of the site. The sanctum of Cave 24 contains a seated Buddha in pralamba-padasana.
Cave 25
Cave 25 is a monastery. The hall inside measures 11.37 meters by 12.24 meters. It is similar to other monasteries, but it does not have a special room for religious activities. Instead, it includes an enclosed courtyard. The cave was dug out at a higher level compared to other similar structures.
Cave 26 (5th century CE)
Cave 26 is a worship hall (chaityagriha, 25.34 × 11.52 m) that has a similar layout to Cave 19. It is much larger and includes features of a vihara design. An inscription explains that a monk named Buddhabhadra and his friend, who served the king of Asmaka, donated this large cave. The inscription includes a vision statement and a goal to create "a memorial on the mountain that will endure for as long as the moon and the sun continue," according to Walter Spink. It is likely that the builders focused on sculpture rather than paintings in Cave 26 because they believed stone carvings would last longer than wall paintings.
The sculptures in Cave 26 are detailed and more complex. It is among the last caves built, and an inscription suggests it was created in the late 5th or early 6th century, as determined by ASI. The cave has an apsidal hall with side aisles for walking around (pradikshana). These paths are decorated with carved Buddhist stories, including three scenes of the Miracle of Sravasti on the right aisle and seated Buddhas in various mudra. Many of these carvings were added later by devotees and are not part of the original design. The artwork begins on the wall of the aisle, just to the left of the entrance. Major artworks include the Mahaparinirvana of the Buddha (a reclining Buddha) on the wall, followed by the story called the "Temptations by Mara." This scene shows Mara’s daughters, who are depicted in seductive poses below the meditating Buddha. On both sides of the Buddha, armies of Mara are shown trying to distract him with noise and threaten him with violence. In the top right corner, Mara is shown as dejected and frustrated after failing to disturb the Buddha’s focus.
At the center of the apse is a rock-cut stupa. The stupa has an image of the Buddha on its front, 18 panels on its base, 18 panels above these, three tiers of a torana above the Buddha, and apsaras carved on the anda (hemispherical part) of the stupa. On top of the dagoba is a nine-tiered harmika, which symbolizes the nine saṃsāra (Buddhism) heavens in Mahayana cosmology. The walls, pillars, brackets, and triforium are heavily carved with Buddhist themes. Many of the wall reliefs and images in this cave were damaged and have been restored as part of conservation efforts.
Between Cave 26 and its left wing, there is an inscription by a courtier of Rashtrakuta Nanaraj (mentioned in the Multai and Sangaloda plates) from the late 7th or early 8th century. This is the last inscription found at Ajanta.
Cave 27
Cave 27 is a monastery and may have been connected to Cave 26. It has two floors, but both are damaged, and the top floor is partially collapsed. The layout of Cave 27 is similar to the layouts of other monasteries.
Cave 28
Cave 28 is an unfinished monastery that is partially excavated. It is located at the farthest western part of the Ajanta complex and is hard to reach.
Cave 29
Cave 29 is an unfinished monastery located at the highest level of the Ajanta complex. It was not included in the original numbering system and is situated between Caves 20 and 21.
Cave 30
In 1956, a landslide blocked the path to Cave 16. During efforts to clear the path, workers found a small opening and a votive stupa in the debris near the stream bed. Further exploration and digging uncovered a previously unknown Hinayana monastery cave, dating back to the 2nd and 1st century BCE. Cave 30 may be the oldest cave in the Ajanta complex. It is a square cave measuring 3.66 meters by 3.66 meters, with three cells. Each cell has two stone beds and stone pillows placed beside them. The door lintels of the cells are carved with lotus and garland designs. The cave contains two inscriptions written in an unknown script. It also has a platform on its veranda, offering a clear view of the river ravine below and the surrounding forest. According to Gupte and Mahajan, this cave may have been sealed at one time using large, carefully carved pieces to make the entrance of Cave 16 less noticeable.
Other infrastructure
Over 80% of the Ajanta caves were vihara, which are temporary homes and monasteries for travelers and monks. The people who designed and built these caves included places to collect donations and store grains and food for visitors and monks. Many caves have large storage areas carved into the floor. The largest storage spaces, according to Spink, are located in the "very spacious areas inside the shrines of Ajanta Cave Lower 6 and Cave 11." These caves were likely chosen because they were convenient and offered safety due to their higher position. The decision to create covered storage areas in the floor may have been made to provide sleeping space for people.
Recent excavations
A monastery made of burnt bricks, located on the right side of the Waghora River near the caves, was recently uncovered. The structure has several rooms arranged around a central courtyard, where a stupa was built. During the excavation, a coin from Visvasena, a ruler of the Western Satraps who lived from 293 to 304 CE, and a gold coin from Theodosius II, a Byzantine emperor who ruled from 402 to 450 CE, were found. These coins helped experts determine the age of the caves. A terracotta plaque showing Mahishasuramardini was also discovered. It may have been worshipped by the people who built the site.
Copies of the paintings
The Ajanta paintings have become seriously damaged since they were found again, and many 19th-century copies and drawings are important for fully understanding the original works. In the 19th century, efforts began to copy the Ajanta paintings for European and Japanese museums. Some of these copies were later lost due to natural disasters or fires. For example, in 1846, Major Robert Gill, an army officer from the Madras Presidency and a painter, was asked by the Royal Asiatic Society to copy the frescoes on the cave walls. Gill worked at the site from 1844 to 1863. He created 27 copies of large sections of the murals, but all except four were destroyed in a fire at the Crystal Palace in London in 1866. Gill returned to the site and continued his work until his death in 1875.
In 1872, the Bombay Presidency hired John Griffiths to make copies of the Ajanta paintings with his students, also for sending to England. They worked for thirteen years and produced about 300 paintings, many of which were displayed at the Imperial Institute in London, a predecessor of the Victoria and Albert Museum. However, in 1885, a fire destroyed over 100 of these paintings stored in the museum. Today, the Victoria and Albert Museum still has 166 paintings from both sets, but none have been on permanent display since 1955. The largest paintings measure about 3 by 6 meters. In 2006, a conservation project restored about half of these paintings, with help from the University of Northumbria. Griffiths and his students used "cheap varnish" on some paintings, which made them easier to see but also worsened the condition of the originals. Recent cleaning by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has also contributed to their deterioration, according to Spink and others.
Another set of copies was made between 1909 and 1911 by Christiana Herringham (Lady Herringham) and students from the Calcutta School of Art, including future artist Nandalal Bose. These copies were published in full color as part of London’s India Society’s first publication. Unlike earlier copies, which reflected British Victorian painting styles, Herringham’s team aimed to restore the original condition of the paintings rather than just recording their current state. Their work followed an "Indian Renascence" aesthetic, similar to the style promoted by Abanindranath Tagore.
Early photographic surveys were taken by Robert Gill, whose photos, including some using stereoscopy, were used in books by him and Fergusson (many are available online from the British Library). Later, Victor Goloubew in 1911 and E.L. Vassey took photos for a four-volume study of the caves by Ghulam Yazdani, published between 1930 and 1955.
Some creative copies of Ajanta frescoes, such as the painting of the Adoration of the Buddha from Cave 17, were made by Thomas Holbein Hendley for the Albert Hall Museum in Jaipur, India. A local artist named Murli or Murali painted these copies. The museum opened to the public in 1887, and the work reflects the style of the late 19th century.
A further attempt to copy the murals was made by the Japanese artist Arai Kampō, who was invited by Rabindranath Tagore to teach Japanese painting techniques in India. From 1916 to 1918, Arai made copies using tracings on Japanese paper. His work was preserved at Tokyo Imperial University until the materials were destroyed during the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake.
Reception history
The Ajanta cave paintings show the culture, society, and religious beliefs of people in India between the 2nd century BCE and 5th century CE. Scholars study them from many areas, such as history, sociology, and the study of South Asian cultures. The paintings show details like clothing, jewelry, and social activities. These images help understand the lives of royalty, common people, monks, and religious leaders. They give important information about life in India around the middle of the first millennium CE.
The Ajanta paintings compare the spiritual lives of monks, who lived simply, with the luxurious lives of people who focused on wealth and comfort. Many paintings show scenes from markets, festivals, palaces, and performance areas. These images share similar themes with other ancient sites in India, like Bharhut, Sanchi, and Ellora. The Ajanta caves help people learn about ancient and early medieval Indian art, especially from the Gupta Empire period.
In the early 1800s, Europeans first visited the Ajanta caves but had no written records to help them understand what they saw. They focused on scenes like hunting, domestic life, and people with unusual clothing or hair. They called some statues "Buddha" because of their curly hair.
Early European descriptions of the Ajanta caves were influenced by their own ideas and lacked knowledge of Indian religious stories like the Jataka Tales. They misunderstood the art, calling it strange or without meaning. Their views were shaped by colonial thinking and did not fully understand the religious and cultural significance of the caves.
To many unfamiliar with Indian religions, especially Buddhism, the Ajanta caves seemed like other examples of religious art. However, to Indians and Buddhists, the caves represent a perfect mix of religious and everyday life.
Walter Spink, a respected art historian, said the Ajanta caves were a highly respected place for Indians by 475 CE. Many travelers, pilgrims, monks, and traders visited there. The caves changed greatly between 460 CE and 480 CE, created by local architects and artists. Spink called this achievement one of the greatest in human history.
The Ajanta paintings provide information about ancient India’s social and economic life, especially its connections with other cultures in the 5th century CE. Indian historian Haroon Khan Sherwani said the paintings show how Buddhism welcomed people from many backgrounds, including Greeks, Persians, and others. Many paintings include people from foreign lands, such as those from the Sassanian Empire.
Cave 1 has a painting called the "Persian Embassy Scene," showing people with foreign clothing or faces. This painting was once thought to show a Persian ambassador visiting a Hindu king in 625 CE. However, scholars now believe it is part of a Jataka story from the 5th century, showing trade between India and distant lands.
Cave 1 and Cave 17 have many paintings showing foreigners. These images suggest that 5th-century India had a diverse and wealthy society involved in international trade. The use of blue lapis lazuli, a pigment imported from Afghanistan or Iran, shows connections with other regions. Some paintings show foreigners drinking wine, suggesting trade in goods like textiles and gems. These items were likely exported through the Red Sea and later the Persian Gulf.
Scholars agree the paintings show trade between India and the Sassanian Empire, but they disagree on details. Some think the ships and jars in the paintings show foreign ships bringing wine to India, while others believe the jars hold water and the ships are Indian.
In Cave 17, paintings of the Buddha show many foreigners listening to his teachings. These people wear different clothing, like kaftans and Sasanian helmets, and have varied skin tones. Other paintings show servants from Central Asia and Africa, showing the diversity of people involved in trade and daily life.
Impact on later painting and other arts
The Ajanta paintings, or the style they represent, influenced art in Tibet and Sri Lanka. Some similar styles from Ajanta have also been found in the Kizil Caves of the Tarim Basin, especially in early caves like the Peacock Cave.
The rediscovery of ancient Indian paintings at Ajanta gave Indian artists examples from ancient India to use as models. Nandalal Bose tried different methods to copy the ancient style, which helped him create his own unique style. Abanindranath Tagore and Syed Thajudeen also used the Ajanta paintings as inspiration for their work.
Anna Pavlova’s ballet Ajanta’s Frescoes was inspired by her visit to Ajanta. It was choreographed by Ivan Clustine and had music by Nikolai Tcherepnin (some sources say Mikhail Fokine in 1923). The ballet premiered at Covent Garden in 1923.
Jewish American poet Muriel Rukeyser wrote about the caves in “Ajanta,” the first poem of her third collection Beast in View (1944). Rukeyser was inspired by writings about the caves by artist Mukul Dey in 1925 and art historian Stella Kramrisch in 1937.