Christian mysticism includes the traditions, practices, and teachings about experiencing God's presence in a deep and meaningful way. Before the sixth century, these practices were called contemplatio (Latin) or theoria (Greek), which both mean "to look at" or "to be aware of" God. Christianity adopted these terms to describe different ways of praying and learning about God.
Contemplative practices include reading and thinking about holy writings, such as Lectio Divina, and focusing on God's presence. These practices can lead to theosis, which means becoming spiritually united with God, and may also result in visions of the soul joining with God. There are three main stages in contemplative practice: catharsis (purification), contemplation (deep reflection), and vision of God (experiencing God directly).
These practices are important in Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy. In recent years, they have also become more popular in Western Christianity.
Etymology
The Greek word theoria (θεωρία) meant "to think deeply, look closely, or observe things." It came from the word theorein (θεωρεῖν), which meant "to consider or look at," and from theoros (θεωρός), meaning "a spectator." This word also came from thea (θέα), meaning "a view," and horan (ὁρᾶν), meaning "to see." Theoria described the state of being a spectator. Both the Greek theoria and the Latin word contemplatio mainly meant "to look at things," whether with the eyes or the mind.
According to William Johnston, until the sixth century, the practice now called mysticism was known as contemplatio or theoria. Johnston wrote that both contemplation and mysticism refer to "the eye of love that looks at and notices divine things."
Many scholars, such as Ian Rutherford and Gregory Grieve, have shown that the Greek idea of theoria is similar to the Indian idea of darśana (darshan).
The word "mysticism" comes from the Greek word μύω, meaning "to close or shut (the eyes or mouth)." This led to the word μυστικός (mystikos), meaning "connected to mysteries, secret, or private." The plural form οἱ μυστικοί was sometimes used instead of μύσται to describe people who joined Greek mystery religions. In this early use, the word μυστήρια (mysteries) meant secret religious rituals. At this time, the word had no direct connection to the spiritual meaning later used in Christianity.
In early Christianity, the word mystikos described three related ideas: the biblical, the liturgical, and the spiritual or contemplative. The biblical idea refers to hidden or symbolic meanings in religious texts. The liturgical idea refers to the sacred part of the Eucharist, which is the ceremony where Christians remember Jesus. The third idea is the personal, spiritual experience of knowing God through deep thought and reflection.
Definition of mysticism
Bernard McGinn describes Christian mysticism as the part of Christian belief and practice that involves preparing for, being aware of, and the effects of a direct and life-changing presence of God. McGinn believes the word "presence" is more accurate than "union" because not all mystics talked about being united with God, and many visions or miracles were not necessarily connected to union. He also suggests using the term "consciousness" instead of "experience" because mystical activity is not just about sensing God as something outside of oneself, but about new ways of knowing and loving God through awareness that changes how people act from within.
William James helped popularize the term "religious experience" in his 1902 book The Varieties of Religious Experience. This idea helped shape how people understand mysticism as a unique kind of experience that provides knowledge. Wayne Proudfoot says the idea of religious experience has roots in the work of Friedrich Schleiermacher, a German theologian who lived from 1768 to 1834. Schleiermacher argued that religion is based on a feeling of something infinite, like the vastness of the universe. He used this idea to support religion against scientific and secular criticism. Many scholars later adopted this idea, with William James being the most well-known.
McGinn focuses on the changes that happen through mystical activity, which connects to his idea of "presence" instead of "experience." He explains that the only way Christianity has tested whether a mystic and their message are true is by looking at whether they and others around them experience personal change.
Parsons notes that focusing too much on "experience" can lead people to value the individual over the shared life of a community. It also fails to separate short, one-time events from mysticism, which is part of a larger religious system that includes practices like worship, rituals, and teachings.
Richard King points out a difference between "mystical experience" and social justice. He says that when mysticism becomes focused only on personal feelings and thoughts, it moves away from issues like fairness in society. Mysticism then becomes seen as something that helps individuals feel calm and balanced, rather than working to change the world.
Mystical experiences are not only about the relationship between a mystic and God. They are often influenced by cultural and religious ideas. For example, Caroline Bynum showed that in the late Middle Ages, miracles that happened during the Eucharist (a Christian ritual) were not just symbols of religious stories. They also proved that the mystic followed correct religious beliefs, showing they did not support ideas like the Cathar belief that the physical world was evil. This shows how mystical experiences could be shaped by the religious and cultural problems of their time.
Origins
润色后的文本：
The concept of mystical realities has been an important part of Christianity since the second century AD. This idea is not just about spiritual practices, but also about the belief that Christian rituals and scriptures have hidden ("mystical") meanings.
The connection between mysticism and the vision of the divine was introduced by the early Church Fathers. They used the term as an adjective, such as in mystical theology and mystical contemplation.
In later centuries, as Christian apologists used Greek philosophy to explain Christian ideas, Neoplatonism became a major influence on Christian mystical thought and practice. This influence is seen in the works of authors like Augustine of Hippo and Origen.
Before the time of Jesus, Jewish spirituality was very public and community-based. It was mainly based on synagogue worship services, which included reading and interpreting the Hebrew Scriptures and reciting prayers. Major festivals also played an important role. Private spirituality was strongly influenced by the liturgies and scriptures, such as the use of the Psalms for prayer. Individual prayers often recalled historical events as much as they recalled personal needs.
Important concepts in this context include:
In Christian mysticism, the term Shekhinah became associated with mystery, Da'at (knowledge) became linked with gnosis, and poverty became an important part of monastic life.
The Greek term theoria referred to the act of experiencing or observing and then understanding through nous.
The influence of Greek thought is evident in the writings of the earliest Christian mystics. Plato, considered the most important ancient philosopher, provided the foundation for many later mystical forms. Plotinus, a key figure in Neoplatonism, influenced Christian, Jewish, and Islamic mysticism.
For Plato, the contemplative (theoros) contemplates the Forms, which are the underlying realities behind individual appearances. Contemplating these atemporal and aspatial realities gives a perspective on ordinary things that is superior to that of ordinary people. Philip of Opus viewed theoria as the contemplation of the stars, with practical effects in daily life similar to those resulting from the contemplation of the Forms.
In the Enneads of Plotinus, everything is contemplation (theoria), and everything is derived from it. The first hypostasis, the One, is contemplation (by the nous, the second hypostasis) as it turns to itself without complexity or need. This self-reflection emanated the second hypostasis, Intellect (Nous), described by Plotinus as "living contemplation," and the third hypostasis has theoria. Knowledge of the One is achieved through experiencing its power, which is contemplation (theoria) of the source of all things.
Plotinus agreed with Aristotle's distinction between contemplation (theoria) and practice (praxis). He believed that dedication to the superior life of theoria requires abstaining from practical, active life. Plotinus explained: "The point of action is contemplation. … Contemplation is therefore the end of action" and "Such is the life of the divinity and of divine and blessed men: detachments from all things here below, scorn of all earthly pleasures, the flight of the lone to the Alone."
Christian scriptures, as the founding narrative of the Christian church, provide many key stories and concepts important to Christian mystics in later generations. Practices such as the Eucharist, baptism, and the Lord's Prayer become significant for their ritual and symbolic values. Other scriptural narratives, such as the crucifixion of Jesus and his appearances after his resurrection, are central to Christian theology. Jesus' conception, where the Holy Spirit overshadows Mary, and his transfiguration, where he is briefly revealed in his heavenly glory, also become important images for meditation. Many Christian texts build on Jewish spiritual foundations, such as chokmah and shekhinah.
Different writers present different ideas. The Synoptic Gospels introduce important concepts, two of which relate to Greco-Judaic notions of knowledge/ gnosis as mental acts: purity of heart, which involves willing to see in God's light; and repentance, which involves allowing God to judge and transform us. Another key idea is the desert, used as a metaphor for meeting God in spiritual poverty.
The Gospel of John emphasizes God's glory through light imagery and the cross as a moment of exaltation. He sees the cross as an example of agape love, which is more about willingness to serve and care for others than an emotion. However, John shifts the focus of spiritual growth away from knowledge/ gnosis, presenting it more in terms of Stoic ideas about reason as the underlying principle of the universe and within all people. Although John does not follow up on the Stoic notion that this principle allows union with the divine, later Christian writers develop this idea. Later generations will also shift between emphasizing knowledge (as in the Synoptics) or love (as in John).
In his letters, Paul focuses on mental activities but not in the same way as the Synoptics, which equate renewing the mind with repentance. Instead, Paul sees the renewal of the mind as happening as we contemplate what Jesus did on the cross, which opens us to grace and the movement of the Holy Spirit into people's hearts. Like John, Paul is less interested in knowledge, preferring to emphasize the hiddenness, or "mystery," of God's plan as revealed through Christ. However, Paul's discussion of the cross differs from John's in focusing more on how it becomes a stumbling block that turns our minds back to God. Paul also describes the Christian life as that of an athlete, requiring practice and training for the sake of the prize; later writers will see this as a call to ascetical practices.
The texts attributed to the Apostolic Fathers, the earliest post-Biblical texts we have, share several key themes, particularly the call to unity in the face of internal divisions and perceptions of persecution. They also discuss the reality of the charisms, especially prophecy, visions, and Christian gnosis, which is understood as "a gift of the Holy Spirit that enables us to know Christ" through meditating on the scriptures and the cross of Christ. (This understanding of gnosis is different from that of the Gnostics, who focused on esoteric knowledge available only to a few, allowing them to free themselves from the evil world.) These authors also discuss the notion of the "two ways," the way of life and the way of death, which has biblical roots in both the Sermon on the Mount and the Torah. The two ways are related to the concept of purity of heart, developed by contrasting it with the divided or duplicitous heart and linking it to the need for asceticism, which keeps the heart whole and pure. Purity of heart was especially important given perceptions of martyrdom, which many writers discussed in theological terms, seeing it not as an evil but as an opportunity to truly die for the sake of faith.</think>
The concept of mystical realities has been an important part of Christianity since the second century AD. This idea is not just about spiritual practices, but also about the belief that Christian rituals and scriptures have hidden ("mystical") meanings.
The connection between mysticism and the vision of the divine was introduced by the early Church Fathers. They used the term as an adjective, such as in mystical theology and mystical contemplation.
In later centuries, as Christian apologists used Greek philosophy to explain Christian ideas, Neoplatonism became a major influence on Christian mystical thought and practice. This influence is seen in the works of authors like Augustine of Hippo and Origen.
Before the time of Jesus, Jewish spirituality was very public and community-based. It was mainly based on synagogue worship services, which included reading and interpreting the Hebrew Scriptures and reciting prayers. Major festivals also played an important role. Private spirituality was strongly influenced by the liturgies and scriptures, such as the use of the Psalms for prayer. Individual prayers often recalled historical events as much as they recalled personal needs.
Important concepts in this context include:
In Christian mysticism, the term Shekhinah became associated with mystery, Da'at (knowledge) became linked with gnosis, and poverty became an important part of monastic life.
The Greek term theoria referred to the act of experiencing or observing and then understanding through nous.
The influence of Greek thought is evident in the writings of the earliest Christian mystics. Plato, considered the most important ancient philosopher, provided the foundation for many later mystical forms. Plotinus, a key figure in Neoplatonism, influenced Christian, Jewish, and Islamic mysticism.
For Plato, the contemplative (theoros) contemplates the Forms, which are the underlying realities behind individual appearances. Contemplating these atemporal and aspatial realities gives a perspective on ordinary things that is superior to that of ordinary people. Philip of Opus viewed theoria as the contemplation of the stars, with practical effects in daily life similar to those resulting from the contemplation of the Forms.
In the Enneads of Plotinus, everything is contemplation (theoria), and everything is derived from it. The first hypostasis, the One, is contemplation (by the nous, the second hypostasis) as it turns to itself without complexity or need. This self-reflection emanated the second hypostasis, Intellect (Nous), described by Plotinus as "living contemplation," and the third hypostasis has theoria. Knowledge of the One is achieved through experiencing its power, which is contemplation (theoria) of the source of all things.
Plotinus agreed with Aristotle's distinction between contemplation (theoria) and practice (praxis). He believed that dedication to the superior life of theoria requires abst
Practice
Within theistic mysticism, two main approaches can be seen. One approach describes God by explaining what He is, and the other describes God by explaining what He is not. The first method is called cataphatic theology, and the second is called apophatic theology.
Urban T. Holmes III divided mystical theology into two types based on whether it focuses on the mind, which he called speculative practice, or on the heart and emotions, which he called affective practice. When these two ideas are combined, they create different categories of mystical practice.
In discursive meditation, such as Lectio Divina, the mind, imagination, and other abilities are used actively to understand the relationship between Christians and God. In contemplative prayer, these activities are reduced, and contemplation is described as "a gaze of faith" or "a silent love." There is no clear line between Christian meditation and Christian contemplation, and they can sometimes overlap. Meditation often serves as the starting point for the contemplative life.
John of the Cross compared the difference between discursive meditation and contemplation to the difference between working and enjoying the fruit of one’s work, or receiving a gift and using it. He also said it is like the difference between traveling and resting at the journey’s end.
Mattá al-Miskīn, an Oriental Orthodox monk, explained that meditation is an active process involving the spirit, imagination, and thinking, while contemplation is a natural, effortless state of the spirit. In meditation, the mind works hard, but in contemplation, the mind rests. Contemplation is described as the soul’s inner vision and the heart’s quiet rest in God.
According to a traditional understanding of Christian spiritual growth, which dates back to Evagrius Ponticus and Dionysius the Pseudo-Areopagite, there are three stages: purification, illumination, and union with God. In Western churches, these stages are called the purgative, illuminative, and unitive stages. In Eastern churches, they are called prayer of the lips, prayer of the mind, and prayer of the heart.
Purification and illumination prepare the soul for seeing God. Without these steps, selfish love cannot change into selfless love. This change happens during the higher stage of illumination, called theoria, which means "vision" and refers to seeing God through constant, unbroken thoughts of Him. People who remain selfish and closed to God will not see His glory in this life, but they will see it in the future as a consuming fire and outer darkness.
In the Orthodox Churches, theosis, or becoming like God, happens through living a pure life, following commandments, and loving God above all else. This transformation comes from deep love for God. Saint Isaac the Syrian wrote that "Paradise is the love of God," and that "the tree of life is the love of God." Theoria is achieved by those with pure hearts who are free from harmful desires. It is a gift from the Holy Spirit given to those who follow God’s commandments and practice ascetic ways, such as praxis, kenosis, Poustinia, and schema.
Purification means turning away from unclean and harmful things. It cleanses the mind and body, but most importantly, it cleanses the mind (nous), the ability to think and know. This is essential for moving out of confusion and into understanding. After purification, wisdom can work more clearly, allowing a person to see and understand God.
In the Eastern Orthodox tradition called hesychasm, humility is called holy wisdom or Sophia. Humility is the most important part of salvation. Following Jesus’ advice to pray in private, hesychasts retreat to solitude to find stillness. This stillness calms the mind and helps see reality clearly. Practitioners aim to reach "unceasing prayer," as described by the apostle Paul.
Some Eastern Orthodox theologians criticize Roman Catholic theology for being too focused on reasoning and not enough on personal spiritual experience. They also point out confusion between parts of the Trinity.
A long-used Christian method for achieving contemplation is repeating a phrase or word constantly. Saint John Cassian suggested using the phrase "O God, make speed to save me: O Lord, make haste to help me." Another method is the Jesus Prayer: "Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me, a sinner," which is sometimes called "the mantra of the Orthodox Church." The author of The Cloud of Unknowing recommended using simple words like "God" or "Love."
In the Eastern Church, noetic prayer is the first step toward theoria, or seeing God. This is different from reading about someone else’s experience or one’s own experience. Noetic prayer is the first stage of the Jesus Prayer, a short prayer: "Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me, a sinner." The second stage is the Prayer of the Heart, where the prayer is internalized.
The Jesus Prayer, which early Christians used as a way to rest in God, was later developed into hesychasm by Byzantine Christians. This practice includes specific rules and became a topic of serious debate. Through the Jesus Prayer, hesychasts learn to stay focused and avoid distractions. The prayer is linked to humility, which is needed for theoria. It also helps calm strong emotions and reduce harmful thoughts. The worldly mind is said to seek comfort and avoid discomfort, which is seen as a result of the fall of man and the loss of pure knowledge. According to St. Theophan the Recluse, the Jesus Prayer and the Prayer of the Heart are related but not the same.
In the Roman Catholic Church, methods of prayer include reciting the Jesus Prayer, which combines the Christological hymn from Philippians 2:6–11.
Eastern Orthodox Christianity
Eastern Christianity has kept a focus on spiritual experiences in its beliefs and continues a tradition of mystical prayer called hesychasm, which has been part of Christian practice since the beginning. Hesychasm is a spiritual path that helps people change their sense of self to become more fully developed individuals, living in harmony with God, the Church, the world, and all creation, including themselves. Eastern Christianity describes this change as theosis, or becoming like God. This idea is often summarized by an old saying from Athanasius of Alexandria: "God became human so that humans might become like God."
According to John Romanides, in Eastern Orthodox Christianity, the main goal of the Christian life is to achieve theosis, which means becoming united with God. This union is described as "being with God" and having a relationship or connection between God and humans. God is seen as the Kingdom of Heaven.
Theosis or unity with God is reached through contemplative prayer, the first step in theoria. This stage comes from developing watchfulness, or being alert and mindful. In theoria, a person gains a vision or experience of God, called "uncreated light," which is a spiritual gift. In Eastern Christian traditions, theoria is the most important part of becoming a theologian, but it is not required for salvation. Experiencing God is important for the spiritual and mental health of all living things, including humans. Knowing God is not about learning facts, but about personal experience. According to Andrew Louth, theology's purpose is to prepare people for contemplation, not to be the goal of contemplation itself.
Theoria is the main goal of hesychasm, which began with the teachings of Evagrius Ponticus, John Climacus, Maximus the Confessor, and Symeon the New Theologian. John Climacus wrote about different stages of spiritual practice in his book The Ladder of Divine Ascent, ending with the highest form of love, called agape. Symeon believed that monks who directly experienced God could teach and forgive sins without needing formal approval from the Church. While Church leaders taught using logic and philosophy, Symeon taught based on his own spiritual experiences, which caused some to oppose him. John Romanides says this difference in teaching about experiencing God is a major reason for disagreements between Eastern Orthodox and Western Christianity, especially about hesychasm.
John Romanides, following Vladimir Lossky's interpretation of St. Gregory Palamas, explains that the belief that God is beyond human understanding has led Western Christianity to think God cannot be experienced in this life. Western theology focuses more on logic and reason, like in scholasticism, to prove God's existence, rather than on forming a relationship with God (theosis and theoria).
In the Orthodox Churches, theoria is seen as the true way to know God, unlike false or incomplete knowledge from thinking alone (such as speculation, logic, or dialectics). After theoria, people are united with God and can understand spiritual truths properly. Thus, theoria, or seeing God, brings a deep awareness of God that silences human doubts.
The most common false spiritual knowledge comes not from experiencing God, but from reading about others' experiences and making conclusions that seem like real knowledge. False spiritual knowledge can also be harmful, coming from evil sources. God gives the ability to know good and evil, which humans cannot achieve on their own. Theosis is the process of gradually aligning with good, and through union with God, humans become like God. Illumination restores humans to a state of faith in God, called noesis, which existed before humans lost their connection to God through the fall.
In the Orthodox Churches, false spiritual knowledge leads to spiritual confusion (called prelest in Russian or plani in Greek), which is the opposite of being fully aware (nepsis). Sobriety means being fully conscious and self-realized (enstasis), leading to true spiritual knowledge (gnosis). Prelest or plani is when a person becomes disconnected from reality, called amartía. This includes harming the nous, or the spiritual and mental abilities needed for understanding.
Evil is defined as turning away from God and existence. Misotheism, or hatred of God, separates humans from nature and the spiritual and material worlds. Reconciliation with God is achieved through faith in God's eternal nature, not through rebellion or magic.
The Trinity—God as Nous, Word, and Spirit—is the foundation of human existence. The Trinity created humans through three aspects: origin (nous, created from nothing), inner spiritual experience, and physical experience, as shown by Christ (logos, the perfect example) and his saints. False knowledge is marked by symptoms like somnolence, or "awake sleep," and later, psychosis. Theoria opposes symbolic or allegorical interpretations of church traditions.
In Orthodox practice, once a person reaches true discernment (diakrisis, called phronema), they can tell true spiritual knowledge from false knowledge and gain holy wisdom. The highest holy wisdom, Sophia or Hagia Sophia, is developed through humility and remembering death to fight against ego, greed, and selfishness. Vlachos of Nafpaktos wrote:
"But let him not remain in this condition. If he wishes to see Christ, then let him do what Zacchaeus did. Let him receive the Word in his home, after having previously climbed up into the sycamore tree, 'mortifying his limbs on the earth and raising up the body of humility.'"
— Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos (1996), Life after Death
Practicing asceticism means rejecting the desires of the ego and the world. God is beyond human understanding and can only be experienced through faith (noetically). False ascetism leads not to unity with God, but to a false existence based on rejecting reality.
Latin Catholic mysticism
In the Latin Church, words like "contemplation" come from the Latin word contemplatio. These terms are often used in languages based on Latin, rather than the Greek word theoria. John Cassian, a writer who influenced Western monasticism, noted that the Latin and Greek terms are similar. However, some Catholic writers sometimes use the Greek term theoria.
The Early Middle Ages in the West included the work of Gregory the Great and Bede. This time also saw the growth of Celtic Christianity and Anglo-Saxon Christianity. It reached a major point with the writings of Johannes Scotus Eriugena and the Carolingian Renaissance.
During the High Middle Ages, mystical practices and ideas became more common, along with the rise of new monastic orders. Important figures included Guigo II, Hildegard of Bingen, Bernard of Clairvaux, and the Victorines, who belonged to different groups. At the same time, laypeople began to show greater interest in religious devotion.
The Late Middle Ages saw a conflict between the Dominican and Franciscan schools of thought, which also represented different mystical beliefs. The Dominicans followed the ideas of Dominic de Guzmán, while the Franciscans were influenced by Francis of Assisi, Anthony of Padua, Bonaventure, Jacopone da Todi, and Angela of Foligno. Mystics also formed groups based on their regions, such as the Beguines (including Mechthild of Magdeburg and Hadewijch), the Rhenish-Flemish mystics (Meister Eckhart, Johannes Tauler, Henry Suso, and John of Ruysbroeck), and the English mystics (Richard Rolle, Walter Hilton, and Julian of Norwich). This period also included figures like Catherine of Siena and Catherine of Genoa, the Devotio Moderna, and books such as Theologia Germanica, The Cloud of Unknowing, and The Imitation of Christ.
The Reformation led to the Counter-Reformation, which brought a new increase in mystical writings, often organized by nationality.
In Spain, Ignatius Loyola wrote The Spiritual Exercises, a guide to help people connect with God through spiritual direction and understanding the relationship between the mind and will. Teresa of Ávila used metaphors like watering a garden and walking through a castle to describe how meditation leads to union with God. John of the Cross rewrote traditional ideas about mysticism and introduced the "dark nights" of the senses and the soul, which describe a time when a person feels separated from God and must let go of distractions to grow closer to Him. Miguel de Molinos, a leader of the Quietism movement, was criticized by the Jesuit preacher Paolo Segneri and later condemned by the Inquisition. He publicly admitted his errors in 1687 and was imprisoned for life. Protestants at the time believed his punishment was unfair and a result of Jesuit opposition. Molinos died in prison in 1696 or 1697.
Lorenzo Scupoli, from Otranto in Apulia, was an Italian mystic known for writing The Spiritual Combat, an important work in Catholic mysticism.
French mystics included Francis de Sales, Jeanne Guyon, François Fénelon, Brother Lawrence, and Blaise Pascal.
Protestant mysticism
The Protestant Reformation lessened the importance of mysticism, though it still created a lot of spiritual books. Even the most active reformers were connected to medieval mystical traditions. For example, Martin Luther, a monk, was influenced by the German Dominican mystical tradition of Eckhart and Tauler, as well as the Dionysian-influenced Wesenmystik ("essence mysticism") tradition. He also published Theologia Germanica, which he said was the most important book after the Bible and Augustine for teaching him about God, Christ, and humanity. Even John Calvin, who rejected many medieval ascetic practices and focused on doctrinal knowledge of God over emotional experiences, had medieval influences, such as Jean Gerson and the Devotio Moderna, which emphasized piety as a way to grow spiritually by depending on God and imitating Christ and the son-father relationship. Calvin’s belief that earthly success could lead to enjoying eternal salvation later influenced the idea of "a mysticism of consolation." However, Protestantism was not without mystics. Leaders of the Radical Reformation, like Caspar Schwenckfeld and Sebastian Franck, had mystical ideas. The Magisterial traditions also produced mystics, such as Peter Sterry (Calvinist) and Johann Arndt (Lutheran). Jakob Böhme, an original thinker in the Lutheran tradition and a forerunner of Christian theosophy, was another example.
As part of the Protestant Reformation, theologians moved away from medieval traditions and returned to what they believed were biblical and early Christian practices. They often doubted Catholic mystical practices, which they thought downplayed the role of grace in salvation and suggested human actions could help achieve it. This led Protestant theology to develop a strong critical attitude, sometimes even hostility, toward Christian mysticism. However, groups like Quakers, Methodists, Episcopalians, Lutherans, Presbyterians, Local Churches, Pentecostals, Adventists, and Charismatics remained open to mystical experiences in different ways.
In England, religious groups included Catholics like Augustine Baker and Julian of Norwich (the first woman to write in English), Anglicans like William Law, John Donne, and Lancelot Andrewes, Puritans like Richard Baxter and John Bunyan (The Pilgrim’s Progress), and early Quakers like George Fox and Methodists like John Wesley, who studied continental mystics.
An example of "scientific reason combined with mysticism in the Church of England" is the work of Sir Thomas Browne, a Norwich physician and scientist. His writings, such as Religio Medici and The Garden of Cyrus, often explored mystical ideas. Browne used scientific, medical, or optical imagery to explain religious truths, especially in Religio Medici and his later work Christian Morals. His flexible Anglicanism, interest in secret knowledge, and self-reflection on his personality and soul, along with his thoughts on science and faith, are shown in Religio Medici. Though his work is complex and rarely read, he is considered one of England’s first "scientific" mystics.
Similarly, Johann Arndt, a German theologian, was well-versed in the mystic tradition. Along with English Puritans, he influenced continental Pietists like Philipp Jakob Spener, Gottfried Arnold, Nicholas Ludwig von Zinzendorf of the Moravians, and the hymnodist Gerhard Tersteegen. Arndt’s book True Christianity was popular among Protestants, Catholics, and Anglicans. He mixed ideas from Bernard of Clairvaux, John Tauler, and the Devotio Moderna to focus on spiritual growth in the heart and mind of believers, moving away from theological debates in Lutheranism. Arndt influenced Spener, who created groups called collegia pietatis ("college of piety") to emphasize spiritual guidance for laypeople, a practice with roots in the work of Aelred of Rievaulx and Francis de Sales.
Pietism, as shaped by Spener, rejected theological debates, intellectualism, and organized religion in favor of personal, emotional spirituality. This emotional and anti-intellectual form of Pietism is seen in the teachings of Zinzendorf, founder of the Moravians. However, more intellectual forms of Pietism appear in the teachings of John Wesley, influenced by Zinzendorf, and American preachers like Jonathan Edwards, who brought back Gerson’s focus on obedience and borrowed ideas from early church teachers Origen and Gregory of Nyssa about humans’ longing for God. John Woolman, who combined mystical views with concern for social issues, was also influenced by Jakob Böhme, William Law, and The Imitation of Christ. The mix of Pietistic devotion and mystical experiences found in Woolman and Wesley is also seen in their Dutch contemporary Tersteegen, who revived the idea that the mind is where God interacts with our souls. Through the Spirit, the mind can intuitively sense God’s presence.
Scientific research
Fifteen Carmelite nuns allowed scientists to scan their brains with fMRI while they were meditating. This state is known as Unio Mystica or Theoria. The results showed that multiple regions of the brain were activated when they considered themselves to be in mystical union with God. These regions included the right medial orbitofrontal cortex, right middle temporal cortex, right inferior and superior parietal lobules, caudate, left medial prefrontal cortex, left anterior cingulate cortex, left inferior parietal lobule, left insula, left caudate, left brainstem, and extra-striate visual cortex.
Further research in 2008 used electroencephalography (EEG) to examine the electrical activity of the brain during mystical experiences. This study found increased theta and gamma band power, as well as enhanced coherence between various brain regions. These findings suggest a state of heightened neural integration during mystical experiences.
Modern philosophy
In modern times, the word "theoria" is sometimes seen as different from its meaning in Christianity, where it was connected to contemplation. Instead, it is now linked to speculation. Boethius, who lived around 480 to 524 or 525, translated the Greek word "theoria" into Latin as "speculatio," not "contemplatio." This means "theoria" is now understood as speculative philosophy. A clearer difference is now made between "theoria" and "praxis," which means theory and practice, than was common in ancient philosophy.