The Iberians (Latin: Hibērī, from Greek: Ἴβηρες, Iberes) were an ancient group of people who lived on the eastern and southern coasts of the Iberian Peninsula. Greek and Roman writers, such as Hecataeus of Miletus, Avienius, Herodotus, and Strabo, described them. Roman writers also used the term Hispani to refer to the Iberians.

The word Iberian, as used by ancient writers, had two meanings. One meaning was broad and included all people living in the Iberian Peninsula, regardless of their ethnic background (such as Pre-Indo-Europeans, Celts, and non-Celtic Indo-Europeans). The other meaning was more specific and refers to the people who lived on the eastern and southern coasts of the Iberian Peninsula. By the 6th century BC, these people had been influenced by cultures from the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and Greeks. This group, which was not Indo-European, spoke the Iberian language from the 7th century BC until at least the 1st century BC. Other parts of the peninsula, such as the north, center, and northwest, were home to groups like the Vascones, Celts, Celtiberians, and possibly the Lusitanians, Vettones, and Turdetani, who were Pre-Celtic or Proto-Celtic Indo-Europeans.

Beginning in the 5th century BC, Iberian soldiers often fought in battles in Italy, Greece, and especially Sicily because of their strong military skills.

History

The Iberians were an ancient group of people who lived on the Iberian Peninsula. Their culture began in the 6th century BC, and some evidence suggests it started as early as the fifth to third millennium BC along the eastern and southern coasts of the peninsula. The Iberians lived in villages and in oppida, which were fortified settlements. Their communities were organized around tribes. In the Spanish Levant, Iberians lived in more urbanized areas than those in the central and northwestern parts of the peninsula. People in the central and northwestern regions mostly spoke Celtic dialects, practiced semi-pastoral lifestyles, and lived in scattered villages. Some of them had fortified towns, like Numantia. They had knowledge of writing, metalworking such as bronze, and agricultural techniques.

Before the Carthaginian and Roman conquests, Iberian settlements became more complex, showing signs of social classes and cities. This likely happened because of trade with the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians. By the late 5th and early 4th centuries BC, important changes led to the rise of an aristocracy and a system where people followed leaders. This system caused cities and towns to form around these leaders, a process called territorial nucleation. In this system, the oppidum, or fortified Iberian town, became a central point in the landscape and political space.

The settlement of Castellet de Banyoles in Tivissa was one of the most important ancient Iberian sites in the northeastern part of the peninsula. It was discovered in 1912. Also found there in 1927 was the "Treasure of Tivissa," a unique collection of silver votive offerings.

Lucentum and Castelldefels Castle were other ancient Iberian settlements. The Mausoleum of Pozo Moro near Chinchilla de Monte-Aragón in Castile-La Mancha may mark the location of another large settlement. Sagunto was the site of an ancient Iberian city called Saguntum, which later became a Roman city. A large fortress was built there in the 5th century BC.

Greek colonists first mentioned the Iberians in the 6th century BC. They described Iberians as non-Celtic people living south of the Ebro River. The Greeks also used the term "Iberians" for a different group in the Caucasus region, now called the Caucasian Iberians. These two groups are not related.

The Iberians traded with many Mediterranean cultures. Iberian pottery and metalwork have been found in France, Italy, and North Africa. They had close contact with Greek colonies like Emporion, Rhode, and Hemeroskopeion. Some Iberian statues, such as the Lady of Baza and the Lady of Elche, show knowledge of Greek art techniques. Thucydides wrote that one of Sicily’s original tribes, the Sicani, may have been of Iberian origin, though "Iberian" at the time could have included people we now call Gauls.

The Iberians also traded with the Phoenicians, who established colonies in southern Andalucia. Their first colony on the Iberian Peninsula was founded in 1100 BC and called Gadir, later renamed Gades by the Romans (modern Cádiz). Other Phoenician colonies in southern Iberia included Malaka (Málaga), Sexi, and Abdera.

According to Arrian, the Iberians sent envoys to Alexander the Great in 324 BC, along with representatives from Carthage, Italics, and Gauls, to ask for his friendship.

After the First Punic War, Carthage faced heavy debt and expanded its control over the Iberian Peninsula. Hamilcar Barca began this conquest from Cádiz by taking control of the rich silver area along the Guadalquivir River. After Hamilcar’s death, his son-in-law Hasdrubal the Fair continued the campaign, founding the colony of Qart Hadasht (modern Cartagena) and reaching the southern bank of the Ebro River. After Hasdrubal’s death in 221 BC, Hannibal took command and spent two years conquering Iberian lands south of the Ebro. He defeated the Olcades, Vaccaei, and Carpetani, expanding his control over the Tagus region. Hannibal then attacked Saguntum, a Roman ally, which started the Second Punic War. The Iberian region was a major battleground during this war, with many Iberian and Celtiberian warriors fighting for both Rome and Carthage, though most tribes supported Carthage.

Rome sent Gnaeus and Publius Cornelius Scipio to conquer Iberia from Carthage. Gnaeus defeated the Ilergetes tribe north of the Ebro, which was allied with Carthage, and captured the Iberian oppidum of Tarraco. He also defeated the Carthaginian fleet. After Publius Scipio arrived, Tarraco was fortified, and by 211 BC, the Scipio brothers had taken control of Carthaginian and allied forces south of the Ebro. However, during this campaign, Publius Scipio was killed in battle, and Gnaeus died during a retreat. The situation changed when Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus arrived in 210 BC. He captured Carthago Nova and defeated Hasdrubal Barca’s army at the Battle of Baecula (209–208). The war continued until the decisive Roman victory at the Battle of Ilipa (modern Alcalá del Río in Sevilla province), where Publius Scipio Africanus won. The Carthaginians retreated to Gades, and Publius Scipio gained control of southern Spain. After this, the Ilergetes and other Iberian tribes rebelled, and only after suppressing this revolt did the Romans conquer the remaining Carthaginian territories in southern Spain.

After Carthage’s defeat, the Iberian territories were divided into two provinces: Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Citerior. In 197 BC, Iberian tribes in Hispania Citerior rebelled again. After securing these regions, Rome invaded and conquered Lusitania and Celtiberia. The Romans fought a long campaign to take control of Lusitania. Fighting in northern Iberia continued until 16 BC, when the last rebellions were crushed during the Cantabrian Wars.

Iberian culture

Iberian society was divided into groups such as kings or chieftains (called "regulus" in Latin), nobles, priests, artisans, and slaves. The Iberian aristocracy, often called a "senate" by ancient writers, met in a group of nobles. Kings or chieftains kept their armies through a system of duties or loyalty, which the Romans called "fides."

The Iberians learned to grow grapes for wine and olives from the Greeks. Raising horses was very important to the Iberians, especially their nobles. Mining was also a key part of their economy, including silver near Gader and Cartago Nova, iron in the Ebro valley, and tin and copper in other areas. They made fine metal tools and strong iron weapons like the falcata.

The Iberians created sculptures in stone and bronze, which were greatly influenced by Greek, Carthaginian, and Phoenician styles, as well as Assyrian, Hittite, and Egyptian art. Iberian sculpture styles are grouped by region into Levantine, Central, Southern, and Western styles, with the Levantine style showing the most Greek influence. Their pottery and paintings were unique and spread across the region. Iberian pottery was often decorated with red geometric shapes, though some areas used images of people or scenes.

Iberian religion was polytheistic, meaning they worshipped many gods. Their beliefs were influenced by Greek, Carthaginian, and Phoenician traditions, as seen in their art. Statues like the man-bull Bicha of Balazote (possibly a fertility god) and carvings of sphinxes and lions resembled creatures from the eastern Mediterranean. The Lady of Elche and Lady of Guardamar showed Greek-style art. Local people worshipped gods like Tanit, Baal, Melqart, Artemis, Demeter, and Asclepius. Few native Iberian gods are known, but one called "Betatun" was recorded in a Latin inscription. A female goddess linked to earth and rebirth, shown in the Lady of Baza, was associated with birds, flowers, and wheat. Horses were also important in religion, with a sanctuary for horses found in Mula (Murcia). Art shows a "horse taming god" or "lord of the horses" (despotes hippon), and the goddess Ataegina appears in many writings.

Iberians performed religious rituals outdoors and in natural places like forests, springs, and caves. Ancient writings mention priests in the region of Tartessos at a temple of Melqart. Pottery shows scenes of dances, like the "Bastetania dance" from Fuerte del Rey, and depictions of the dead facing a wolf. Animal sacrifices were common in their rituals.

In Iberian beliefs about death, people thought dying was the start of a journey across the sea, land, or sky. Supernatural beings like sphinxes and wolves, or even gods, were believed to guide the dead. Iberians burned their dead, placed the ashes in urns, and then buried the urns in stone tombs.

Iberian soldiers were often hired by Carthage and Rome as mercenaries and helpers. Many Carthaginian soldiers during the Punic Wars were Iberians or Celtiberians. Iberian fighting was common and involved raids between tribes. In battles, Iberians would charge, throw javelins, and shout at enemies before retreating, a style called "concursare" by the Romans. They also used ambushes and guerrilla tactics.

Ancient writers described two types of Iberian infantry: scutati and caetrati. Scutati wore heavy armor and used large shields called scutum. Caetrati used smaller shields called caetra. Their weapons included the famous Gladius Hispaniensis, a curved sword called the falcata, straight swords, spears, javelins, and an iron spear called the Soliferrum. Iberian horsemen were important in both Iberian and Carthaginian armies. Spain had many strong wild horses, and Iberian cavalry was among the best in the ancient Mediterranean.

Iberians lived along the eastern and southern coasts of the Iberian Peninsula, which is the northern part of the Mediterranean Sea. This area includes today’s Catalonia, parts of Aragon, the Valencian Community, Murcia, eastern Andalucia, and the Balearic Islands in Spain, as well as parts of France like Roussillon and Languedoc. The name "Iberian Peninsula" comes from the ancient Greeks, Romans, and other Mediterranean peoples who first met Iberian tribes. However, most people in the northern, central, and western parts of the peninsula were not Iberians in the ethnic or language sense, only in the geographical sense.

The Iberian tribes and groups included:

The Iberian language, like other ancient languages except Basque, disappeared by the 1st to 2nd centuries AD as Latin replaced it. It is a language that does not fit into known groups like Indo-European. Some studies suggest similarities between Iberian and the Messapic language, as well as links to Basque, Etruscan, and Minoan Linear A.

There are different ideas about where the Iberian language began. One theory says it started in northern Catalonia and spread from there.

The Iberians used three writing systems to record their language.

The northeastern and southeastern Iberian scripts share a common feature: they use symbols for sounds and letters in a mix of ways. These systems are not alphabets or syllabaries but are called semi-syllabaries. Researchers disagree on whether these scripts were influenced only by the Phoenician alphabet or also by the Greek alphabet.