Insular art, also called Hiberno-Saxon art, was created in Great Britain and Ireland during the time after the Roman Empire ended in those regions. The name comes from the Latin word "insula," meaning "island." During this period, art in Britain and Ireland shared a similar style that was different from the rest of Europe. Art historians often group Insular art with the Migration Period art movement and Early Medieval Western art. The unique look of Insular art comes from combining these two styles.
Most Insular art was made by Irish monks who practiced Celtic Christianity or by artists creating items for wealthy people. This style began around the year 600 when Celtic and Anglo-Saxon styles were combined. A key feature of Insular art is interwoven patterns, such as those found at Sutton Hoo in East Anglia. These patterns were used to decorate new types of objects, especially books, which were often copied from designs in the Mediterranean region.
The most outstanding period of Insular art ended because of the Viking raids that started in the late 700s. These attacks disrupted monasteries and the lives of wealthy people, possibly interrupting the creation of the Book of Kells. No later religious books were as beautifully decorated as those made in the 8th century. In England, Insular art gradually became part of Anglo-Saxon art by the year 900. In Ireland, the style lasted until the 1100s, when it merged with Romanesque art. Important centers of Insular art were in Ireland, Scotland, and the kingdom of Northumbria in northern England. Examples were also found in southern England, Wales, and parts of Europe, especially in modern-day France, where monasteries were founded by Hiberno-Scottish and Anglo-Saxon missionaries. Insular art influenced later European medieval art, especially the decorative designs in Romanesque and Gothic manuscripts.
Most surviving examples of Insular art include decorated books, metal objects, and carved stone, especially stone crosses. These items are covered with detailed patterns, but they do not show depth, volume, or distance. Famous examples are the Book of Kells, Lindisfarne Gospels, Book of Durrow, and brooches like the Tara Brooch. A special feature of Insular manuscripts is carpet pages, which are filled with intricate patterns. Other common elements include historiated initials (a unique Insular invention), canon tables, and images of religious figures, such as portraits of the Evangelists.
Designation
The word "Insular," which means related to islands, comes from the term "Insular script." This term was first recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary in 1908, but it is clear from their example that people were already using it before that time. Carola Hicks says the first known use was in 1901. Linguists also use "Insular" to describe the Insular Celtic languages. At first, the term was mainly used to describe the decoration style found in illuminated manuscripts, which are the most common surviving objects from that time showing this style. Now, the term is used more broadly across all types of art and even to refer to groups of people, such as "Insular Celts." This helps show the shared artistic style across Britain and Ireland without using the phrase "British Isles," which is a sensitive topic in Ireland. It also avoids debates about where the style began and where specific works were made, which were common in the 20th century and may be happening again today.
Some sources divide the time period into two parts: a longer time from the 5th to 11th centuries, covering the end of the Roman era to the start of the Romanesque style, and a shorter time from the 6th to 9th centuries, between the spread of Christianity and the arrival of Vikings. However, C. R. Dodwell notes that in Ireland, the Insular style continued without much change until the Anglo-Norman invasion in 1170. Examples of this style even appear in the 13th and 14th centuries.
Insular decoration
The Insular style is well known for its very detailed, complex, and creative decoration, which includes elements from earlier artistic styles. Late Iron Age Celtic art, called "Ultimate La Tène," inspired the use of spirals, triskeles, circles, and other geometric designs. These were combined with animal shapes, mostly from the Germanic version of the Eurasian animal style, though also influenced by Celtic art, where scroll-like ends on animal heads were common. Both the Germanic and Celtic traditions used interlace patterns, as did Roman art (such as in floor mosaics) and other styles like Coptic art. In Insular art, interlace was used in more advanced ways, along with the other elements already described.
In manuscript painting, artists did not try to show depth. Instead, they focused on creating bright, patterned surfaces. Early works showed human figures in the same geometric style as animal figures. However, as time passed, influences from classical art styles, likely from southern Anglo-Saxon areas, became more common. Northern regions also had direct connections to the Continent. The overall design of the carpet page is often linked to Roman floor mosaics, Coptic carpets, and manuscript paintings, though scholars have not reached a clear agreement on its origins.
Background
Insular art is different from modern Byzantine art and other major art periods because it did not develop in a society where similar artistic styles were used across many types of objects, such as art, applied art, and decorative art. The society of the islands was mostly rural, with simple buildings and no shared architectural style. Although many objects made from materials that do not last long likely existed and are now lost, religious and secular leaders in Insular society wanted individual objects that showed great skill and beauty. These objects stood out more because the everyday world around them lacked complex visual styles.
In Ireland, religious and non-religious leaders often had close ties, with some church positions passed down through small family groups for many generations. Ireland was divided into many small "kingdoms," too many for historians to easily track, while Britain had fewer, larger kingdoms. Both Celtic (Irish and Pictish) and Anglo-Saxon leaders had long traditions of creating high-quality metalwork, often used for personal decoration by both men and women in the elite. The Insular style developed from the blending of Celtic and Anglo-Saxon animal-style art within a Christian context, with some influence from Late Antique styles. This blending was especially visible in books, a new type of object for both traditions, and in metalwork.
The Kingdom of Northumbria played a key role in creating this new style. As the northernmost Anglo-Saxon kingdom, it expanded into areas with Celtic populations but often left those groups largely unchanged in places like Dál Riata, Elmet, and the Kingdom of Strathclyde. The Irish monastery at Iona was founded by Saint Columba in 563, when Iona was part of Dál Riata, which included land in both Ireland and modern Scotland. Although Northumbria's first king to convert to Christianity, Edwin, was influenced by missionaries from Kent, the Celtic Christian traditions of Iona had a stronger early influence in Northumbria. This led to the founding of Lindisfarne in 635 as a nearby religious center. However, Northumbria remained connected to Rome, and other important monastic centers were established by figures like Wilfrid and Benedict Biscop, who followed Roman practices. At the Synod of Whitby, Roman traditions were supported, while the Iona group left, not adopting the Roman method for calculating Easter until 715.
Recent discoveries, such as the large collection of decorated metalwork in the Staffordshire Hoard found in 2009 and the Prittlewell princely burial in Essex found in 2003, may challenge long-held views about the origins of the Insular style.
Metalwork
Christianity discouraged people from burying items with the dead. This means that from the Anglo-Saxon time, there are more examples of older traditions than later ones. Most surviving items from the Christian period were quickly hidden, lost, or abandoned. A few exceptions exist, such as arm-shaped boxes that hold holy items, like the Shrine of Saint Lachtin's Arm, and box-shaped shrines for books or relics. These are mostly kept by churches in Europe, though the Monymusk Reliquary has always been in Scotland.
Most surviving items were found by chance, and only parts of larger objects remain. The best-preserved items include jewelry, tableware, and altarware, which look similar. Some pieces are hard to tell apart, like those used for religious altars or royal dining tables. It is likely that the finest religious items were made by craftsmen in royal households, while others were made in monastic workshops. Evidence suggests that Irish metalworkers created many of the best pieces, but items from the Sutton Hoo burial in England are also very well made. Some pieces may not have been fully designed by the craftsman, as seen in parts of the Ardagh Chalice that show less skill.
Many large brooches, similar in quality to the Tara Brooch, are in major museums. Each brooch has unique designs, and the craftsmanship uses techniques found in ancient manuscripts. Decorative stones include amber, rock crystal, and garnets. Colored glass and enamel, likely imported, are also used, as seen in the Ballinderry Brooch.
The Rinnegan Crucifixion Plaque, made of gilded bronze, is one of nine known Irish crucifixion plaques. It may have been part of a book cover or altar. The Ardagh Chalice and the Derrynaflan Hoard, discovered in 1980, are the most important surviving religious metal items. These date to the 8th or 9th century, though exact dates are uncertain. Fragments of larger religious items, like shrines and crosses, also remain.
The Insular crozier, a type of staff, had a unique shape. Surviving examples, like the Kells and Lismore croziers, are from Ireland or Scotland and date to the later Insular period. These items show Viking influences, with patterns similar to those in the Ringerike or Urnes styles.
The Cross of Cong, a 12th-century Irish cross, has Insular-style decoration and may have been made to revive older artistic traditions.
During the Insular period, the most beautifully decorated manuscripts were displayed as art, not for reading. The Book of Kells, for example, has uncorrected mistakes and lacks text needed for religious charts. It was stolen in 1006 for its metal cover, which was not recovered. No major Insular manuscripts have kept their original jeweled covers, but evidence suggests they were as impressive as those in Europe. The Lindau Gospels’ cover, made in Germany, shows Insular influence and has a cross design with Italian-style enamel.
Key items from this time include:
– The Tara Brooch, around 710 to 750 AD
– Rinnegan Crucifixion Plaque, 8th century
– Monymusk Reliquary, 8th century
– The Derrynaflan Chalice, 8th or 9th century
– Cumdach for the Stowe Missal, around 1026
– Shrine of Saint Lachtin's Arm, early 10th century
– The Clonmacnoise Crozier, 11th century
– Soiscél Molaisse, with metalwork added in the 11th century
Illuminated manuscripts
The Cathach of St. Columba is an Irish Latin psalter from the early 7th century. It may be the oldest known Irish manuscript of any kind. It contains only decorated letters at the beginning of each Psalm. These letters show unique features. Not only the first letter but also the next few are decorated, becoming smaller in size. The decoration changes the shape of the letters. Different styles are combined in a way that is not typical of classical art. Lines begin to curve and change shape, as seen in examples. Black ink is used, but some orange ink is also used for dotted patterns. In classical traditions, capital letters were rarely used for initials, and when they were, they were often placed in the left margin, separated from the rest of the text. The Insular style, which places decoration inside the text and lets it grow, was a new and bold approach. The Bobbio Jerome, dated before 622, from Bobbio Abbey in northern Italy, has a more detailed initial with color, showing even more developed Insular features. From the same scriptorium and similar time, the Bobbio Orosius includes the earliest carpet page, though it is simple.
The Durham Gospel Book Fragment is the oldest surviving painted Insular manuscript. Created in Lindisfarne around 650, only seven pages remain, not all with illustrations. It introduces interlace patterns and uses Celtic designs from metalwork. Two surviving pages are connected as a two-page spread.
The Book of Durrow is the earliest surviving Gospel Book with full decoration, though not all parts remain. It has six carpet pages, a full-page image of the four evangelist symbols, four pages with large initials, and decorated text elsewhere. Many smaller initials are also decorated. Its date and origin are debated, with 650–690 and locations like Durrow, Iona, or Lindisfarne as possibilities. The decoration includes cross motifs, ribbon patterns, lattices, carpet pages, and evangelist symbols. After large initials, the following letters on the same line are also decorated, but at smaller sizes. Dots around large initials are common. Figures are highly stylized. Some pages use Germanic interlaced animal designs, while others use Celtic geometric spirals. Each page uses a unique set of decorative elements. Only four colors are used, but this does not limit the visual impact. All elements of the Insular style are already present. The work is of high quality but less refined than later manuscripts.
The Lindisfarne Gospels were made in Lindisfarne by Eadfrith, Bishop of Lindisfarne, between 690 and 721. It follows the style of the Book of Durrow but is more detailed. All letters at the start of the Gospels are highly decorated. Many two-page spreads are designed as units, with carpet pages facing an initial page at the start of each Gospel. Eadfrith was likely both the scribe and artist. There are four Evangelist portraits, clearly inspired by classical art but without depth. The borders around these portraits are simpler than the text pages, showing two distinct styles. The carpet pages are very complex and beautifully made.
The Lichfield Gospels were likely made in Lichfield around 730. This luxurious Gospel Book includes eight decorated pages, such as a cross-carpet page and portraits of Mark and Luke. Parts of the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke survive. Pages from its time in Wales include early examples of Old Welsh writing. The manuscript has been in Lichfield Cathedral since the late 10th century, except during the English Civil War.
The St Petersburg Bede was created by Monkwearmouth-Jarrow Abbey in Northumbria between 730 and 746. It includes large letters with metalwork-style decoration. Thin interlace bands are found within the letters. It also contains the earliest historiated initial, a bust likely of Pope Gregory I, which follows a Mediterranean model. Color is used but in a limited way.
The Book of Kells is usually dated to around 800, though sometimes earlier. Its origin is debated between Iona and Kells, or other locations. It may have started in Iona and continued in Ireland after Viking attacks. The book is nearly intact, but some decoration is unfinished. It is more decorated than any previous manuscript, with many small decorated letters on nearly every page. Only one carpet page exists, but the incipit initials are so detailed that they serve a similar purpose. Human figures are more common than before, though stylized and surrounded by dense decoration. Books are clearly shown in illustrations. Scenes like the Temptation and Arrest of Christ, and a Madonna and Child surrounded by angels (the earliest Western depiction of this), are included. Some miniatures may have been lost. Colors are bright, and spiral patterns dominate. Gold and silver are not used. The Book of Kells is kept in Trinity College Dublin.
A less well-known Insular manuscript in Trinity College Dublin’s library is the Garland of Howth, which is damaged. Only two illuminated pages remain, decorated with common Insular motifs.
A distinct type of Insular book is the pocket Gospel Book, which is less decorated but sometimes includes Evangelist portraits and other designs. Examples include the Book of Mulling, Book of Deer, Book of Dimma, Book of Armagh, and the smallest, the Stonyhurst Gospel (now in the British Library), a 7th-century Anglo-Saxon text of the Gospel of John. It belonged to St. Cuthbert and was buried with him. Its beautifully tooled goatskin cover is the oldest surviving Western bookbinding and a rare example of Insular leatherwork.
Both Anglo-Saxon and Irish manuscripts have a rougher vellum finish compared to the smooth vellum of later periods. Scribes who copied the text were often also the artists, including senior figures in their monasteries.
In England, a Continental style influenced early manuscripts. The Gregorian mission from Rome brought the St. Augustine Gospels and other manuscripts, which were later lost. Other books were imported from the continent early on. The 8th-century Cotton Bede s…
Sculpture
Large stone high crosses, often built outside monasteries or churches, first appeared in Ireland during the 8th century. These may have been created at Carndonagh, Donegal, a monastic site with designs influenced by Ionian styles. These Irish crosses may have been built later than the earliest Anglo-Saxon crosses, which could date back to the 7th century.
Later carvings from the British Isles and Ireland were mostly made with geometric shapes, similar to the designs on the earliest crosses. By the 9th century, images of people and scenes began to appear on crosses. The largest crosses often had many figures carved on all sides, with scenes from the Old Testament on the east side, the New Testament on the west side, and a Crucifixion at the center of the cross. The 10th-century Muiredach's High Cross at Monasterboice is usually considered the best example of Irish high crosses. In later examples, the number of figures decreased, and they became larger, with styles that began to resemble the Romanesque style, as seen on the Dysert Cross in Ireland.
The 8th-century Northumbrian Ruthwell Cross, which was damaged by Presbyterian iconoclasm, is the most impressive remaining Anglo-Saxon cross. However, like most Anglo-Saxon crosses, its original crosshead is missing. Many Anglo-Saxon crosses were smaller and thinner than Irish ones, leaving little space for detailed carvings of people. However, the Bewcastle Cross, Easby Cross, and Sandbach Crosses are examples that have large areas with detailed images of people, larger than any early Irish examples. Even early Anglo-Saxon crosses combined vine-scroll designs from Europe with interlace patterns. In later crosses, the vine-scroll style became more common, just as it did in manuscripts. Literary records suggest that many carved stone crosses existed across England, along with straight shafts used as grave markers. Most surviving examples are found in the northernmost counties of England. Other examples of monumental sculpture from the Anglo-Saxon period also exist, but no similar works have been found in Ireland.
Pictish standing stones
The stone monuments built by the Picts of Scotland north of the Clyde-Forth line between the 6th–8th centuries are impressive in design and construction. These stones are carved in the typical Easter Ross style, which is similar to the art found in Insular art, though they show much less influence from classical styles. The shapes of animals on the stones are often similar to those in Insular manuscripts, where they usually represent the symbols of the Evangelists. This may suggest that the Picts created these designs or that both traditions shared a common source. The carvings date back to both pagan and early Christian times, and the Pictish symbols, which are still not fully understood, did not seem to be seen as offensive by Christians. The purpose and meaning of the stones are only partly known. Some believe they were used as personal memorials, with the symbols showing connections to clans, families, or groups and depicting ancient ceremonies and rituals. Examples include the Eassie Stone and the Hilton of Cadboll Stone. It is possible that the stones also marked tribal or family lands. Some scholars suggest the symbols might have been a form of written language.
There are also a few examples of similar decoration on Pictish silver jewelry, such as the Norrie's Law Hoard from the 7th century or earlier, much of which was melted down when discovered, and the 8th-century St Ninian's Isle Hoard, which includes many brooches and bowls. The surviving items from both hoards are now kept in the National Museum of Scotland.
Legacy
The true legacy of Insular art is not about its specific styles. Instead, it is about how it differs from classical decoration methods, whether used for books or other artworks. The energy in Insular art, which flows across structured areas, becomes a feature of later medieval art, especially Gothic art, even in places where specific Insular designs are rarely used, such as buildings. The combination of images with decorative patterns also became a common feature in all later medieval illuminated manuscripts. For the complexity and detail of these designs, Insular manuscripts are only matched by some 15th-century works from late Flemish illumination. It is also clear that these features are more common in northern Europe than in southern Europe. Even during the Gothic period, Italian art always kept a clear, classical style in its forms.
Clear influence from Insular art can be seen in Carolingian manuscripts, even though these works also tried to copy styles from Rome and Byzantium. Larger letters, sometimes with figures inside them, were kept, as well as more abstract decoration than found in classical designs. These features continued in Ottonian and French artworks from the same time, before the Romanesque period further reduced classical influences, especially in manuscripts and the tops of columns.