Khufu, also known as Cheops, was the second ruler of Egypt's Fourth Dynasty during the early Old Kingdom period in the 26th century BC. He became king after his father, Sneferu. Khufu is usually believed to have ordered the construction of the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. However, many details about his rule are not well recorded. Khufu is also mentioned in the Westcar Papyrus, an ancient Egyptian document from the 13th Dynasty.
The only fully preserved image of Khufu is a small ivory statue discovered in 1903 at Abydos, a temple site from a later time. Other carvings and statues from his time were found broken, and many of his buildings no longer exist. Khufu’s history is mixed: his rule had a lasting influence during the Old and New Kingdom periods, but ancient writers like Manetho, Diodorus, and Herodotus described him in a very negative way. Because of these differing accounts, Khufu’s character remains unclear and often viewed critically by historians.
Name
Khufu's name, which means "He protects me," was connected to the god Khnum. This might show that Khnum was becoming more important in religion. At this time, new titles for kings and religious leaders were created. These titles suggest that Egyptian pharaohs wanted to show their connection to the gods by using names linked to deities in their official names. Khufu may have believed he had a god-like role, similar to Khnum, who was the god of creation and growth. Because of this, Khufu linked his name to Khnum's. His full name, Khnum-khufu, means "Khnum protects me." Today, Egyptologists say his name is pronounced "Khufu," but during his time, it was likely said as "Kha(w)yafwi(y)." Later, during the Greek period, it was pronounced as "Khewaf(w)."
The pharaoh used two versions of his name: Khnum-khufu and Khufu. The longer version clearly shows Khufu's connection to Khnum, while the shorter version does not. It is unclear why the shorter name was used, as it hides the link to Khnum. It is possible that the shorter name was not meant to be connected to any god.
Khufu is most famous by his Greek name, Khéops or Cheops, which is written as Χέοψ in ancient Greek. He is also known by another Greek name, Súphis, written as Σοῦφις. A less common name used by Josephus is Sofe, written as Σόφε. These names are pronounced differently in English than in Ancient Greek. Arab historians wrote stories about Khufu and the pyramids at Giza. They called him Saurid (سوريد) or Salhuk (سلهوق) in Arabic.
Family
The royal family of Khufu was large. It is not known for sure if Khufu was the biological son of Sneferu. Egyptologists think Sneferu was Khufu's father because later historians wrote that the eldest son or a chosen descendant would inherit the throne. In 1925, the tomb of queen Hetepheres I was discovered east of Khufu's pyramid. It contained many valuable treasures, and several inscriptions gave her the title Mut-nesut ("mother of a king") along with the name of king Sneferu. This made it seem clear at first that Hetepheres was the wife of Sneferu and the mother of Khufu. However, more recently, some researchers have questioned this idea because Hetepheres is not known to have held the title Hemet-nesut ("king's wife"), which is needed to confirm a queen's royal status.
Instead of the title Hemet-nesut, Hetepheres held the title Sat-netjer-khetef ("daughter of his divine body," symbolically meaning "king's bodily daughter"), a title never mentioned before. Because of this, some scholars now believe Khufu may not have been Sneferu's biological son. Instead, Sneferu may have given Khufu a royal position through marriage. By treating Khufu's mother as the daughter of a living god, Khufu's royal status was secured. This idea might be supported by the fact that Hetepheres was buried near her son, not in the burial area of her husband, as was expected.
The following list shows family members who can be confirmed as related to Khufu.
Brothers and sisters:
The following list includes family members who may be related to Khufu, but their connections are not certain. Parents:
Reign
It is still unclear exactly how long Khufu ruled over Egypt. Dates from Khufu's final years suggest he was near his 30-year anniversary, but he may have missed it.
One of these records was found at the Dakhla Oasis in the Libyan Desert. Khufu's serekh name is carved in a rock inscription that mentions the "Mefat-travelling in the year after the 13th (biennial) cattle count under Hor-Medjedu," during his 27th year of rule.
Several papyrus fragments, known as the Diary of Merer, were discovered at Khufu's harbor at Wadi al-Jarf. These documents describe the transport of limestone blocks from Tura to the Great Pyramid of Giza during the "year after the 13th cattle count under Hor-Medjedw."
The highest known date from Khufu's reign is linked to his funeral. Graffiti found near the Great Pyramid mentions the 14th census, in the first month of the season Shemu (spring-early summer), during his 28th or 29th year of rule.
The Royal Canon of Turin from the 19th Dynasty states Khufu ruled for 23 years. However, the ancient historian Herodotus claims 50 years, and Manetho records 63 years. These numbers are now believed to be exaggerated or based on outdated sources. Evidence from Khufu's building projects suggests he ruled for more than 23 years, but the exact length of his reign remains unknown because cattle counts during his time were not always regular or predictable.
Few details about Khufu's political activities are known. Within Egypt, his name appears in inscriptions at Elkab, Elephantine, Hatnub, and Wadi Hammamat. At Saqqara, two terracotta figures of the goddess Bastet were found, with Khufu's horus name carved on their bases. These items were placed at Saqqara during the Middle Kingdom but were created during Khufu's reign.
At Wadi Maghareh in the Sinai, a rock inscription shows Khufu wearing the double crown. He sent expeditions to find turquoise and copper mines. He also sent expeditions to Byblos to trade copper tools and weapons for Lebanon cedar wood, which was used to build large funerary boats, such as those found at the Great Pyramid.
New evidence about Khufu's political activities was found at the ancient port of Wadi al-Jarf on Egypt's Red Sea coast. The site was first explored in 1823 by John Gardner Wilkinson and James Burton but was later abandoned. In 1954, French scholars François Bissey and René Chabot-Morisseau re-excavated the harbor, but their work stopped due to the Suez Crisis in 1956. In 2011, French Egyptologists Pierre Tallet and Gregory Marouard, working for the French Institute of Oriental Archeology (IFAO), restarted excavations. In 2013, hundreds of papyrus fragments dating to 4,500 years ago were discovered. These papyri are now displayed at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Zahi Hawass, an Egyptian archaeologist, called this discovery "the greatest in Egypt in the 21st century."
Ten of these papyri are well-preserved. Most date to Khufu's 27th year and describe how the central government sent food and supplies to sailors and workers. The documents are dated using phrases common to the Old Kingdom and by addressing the king using his Horus name, which was used only when the king was alive. One document, the Diary of Merer, details the life of an official involved in building the Great Pyramid. These papyri are the earliest examples of imprinted papyri found in Egypt. An inscription on the harbor's limestone walls mentions Idu, the head of the royal scribes overseeing trade.
Khufu's cartouche name is also carved on some limestone blocks at the site. The harbor was important for bringing materials like turquoise, copper, and ore from the Sinai Peninsula. The papyri list goods delivered to the site and mention a harbor on the western shore of the Sinai Peninsula, where the ancient fortress Tell Ras Budran was excavated in 1960 by Gregory Mumford. Together, the papyri and the fortress reveal the first known sailing route across the Red Sea. According to Tallet, the harbor may have been one of the legendary high sea harbors of Ancient Egypt, from which expeditions to the gold-rich land of Punt began.
Monuments and statues
The only 3D image of Khufu that has survived almost completely is a small, well-restored ivory figurine called the Khufu Statuette. It shows the king wearing the Red Crown of Lower Egypt. The king is seated on a throne with a short backrest. On the left side of his knees, the Horus-name Medjedu is visible. On the right side, a piece of the cartouche name Khnum-Khufu is seen. Khufu holds a flail in his left hand, and his right hand rests on his right upper leg. The artifact was discovered in 1903 by Flinders Petrie near Abydos. The figurine was found without a head, which Petrie believed happened by accident during digging. When Petrie realized the importance of the find, he stopped all other work and offered a reward to anyone who could find the head. Three weeks later, the head was found after workers carefully sifted through rubble in a deeper layer of the room.
Today, the small statue is restored and displayed in the Egyptian Museum of Cairo in room 32 under inventory number JE 36143. Most Egyptologists believe the statuette is from Khufu’s time, but some scholars, like Zahi Hawass, think it was made later as an artistic copy. Hawass argues that no buildings from the Fourth Dynasty have been found at Kom el-Sultan or Abydos. He also notes that Khufu’s face on the statue is unusually short and round, with no emotional expression. Hawass compares this to statues of other kings, such as Sneferu, Khaefra, and Menkaura, whose faces are idealized, slender, and kind-looking. In contrast, Khufu’s face appears less detailed. Hawass believes Khufu would not have allowed such a rough-looking statue. He also points out that the throne Khufu sits on does not match Old Kingdom styles, which had backrests reaching to the king’s neck. Finally, Hawass argues that the flail in Khufu’s hand, called a Nehenekh flail, is not shown in art until the Middle Kingdom. He concludes the statue may have been made as a charm for sale to people who wanted good luck.
Deitrich Wildung studied how Egyptian art showed Nubian features from ancient times and argued that Khufu had these traits, which were included in his statues.
Excavations at Saqqara in 2001 and 2003 uncovered two terracotta statues of a lion goddess (possibly Bastet or Sekhmet). On her feet, two small figures of childlike kings are preserved. The right figure is identified as Khufu by his Horus name, while the left shows king Pepy I of the 6th Dynasty, known by his birth name. The Pepy statues were added later, as they were placed separately from the goddess. This is unusual because Old Kingdom statues were usually made as complete groups. The two statues are similar in size but differ in that one holds a scepter. The excavators say the statues were restored during the Middle Kingdom after being broken. However, the restoration focused more on the goddess than the kings, as their names were covered with gypsum.
The Palermo Stone mentions in fragment C-2 that two large statues were made for Khufu: one of copper and one of pure gold.
Several alabaster and travertine pieces of seated statues, found by George Reisner at Giza, once had Khufu’s full royal titles. Today, some fragments show Khufu’s name in cartouches. One piece shows a king’s legs and feet, with the name "Khufu" visible in a cartouche nearby.
Two other objects are displayed at the Roemer- und Pelizaeus-Museum Hildesheim. Both are made of alabaster. One shows the head of a cat goddess (likely Bastet or Sekhmet). The position of her right arm suggests the bust once belonged to a statue group like the triad of Mycerinus.
Several statue heads may belong to Khufu. One is the "Brooklyn head" at the Brooklyn Museum in New York. It is 54.3 cm tall and made of pink granite. Its round cheeks link it to Khufu and king Huni. Another head, made of limestone and only 5.7 cm tall, is displayed in Munich.
Khufu is shown in many relief fragments found in his necropolis and elsewhere. All reliefs were made of polished limestone. Some came from the ruined pyramid temple and causeway, where they once covered walls completely. Others were reused at Amenemhet I’s pyramid necropolis in Lisht and at Tanis and Bubastis. One fragment shows Khufu’s cartouche with the phrase "Building of the sanctuaries of the gods." Another shows fat oxen decorated with flowers, prepared as sacrifices. A third fragment shows archers drawing their bows, called "archers prepare." A fourth shows Khufu wearing the double crown and impaling a hippopotamus.
At Wadi Maghareh in Sinai, a rock inscription includes Khufu’s names and titles, stating: "Hor-Medjedu, Khnum-Khuf, Bikuj-Nebu, the great god and smiter of the troglodytes, all protection and life are with him." The carving style resembles that of king Snefru. One scene shows Khufu wearing the double crown near the god Thoth. Another shows Khufu wearing the Atef crown while fighting an enemy, with the god Wepwawet nearby.
None of the relief fragments show Khufu offering to a god. This is unusual, as Sneferu’s reliefs and those of later kings show kings offering to deities. This absence may have influenced ancient Greek historians to believe Khufu closed temples and banned sacrifices.
Khufu’s pyramid complex was built in the northeastern part of the Giza plateau. It is possible that limited space, lack of local limestone quarries, and unstable ground at Dahshur forced Khufu to move north, away from Sneferu’s pyramid. Khufu chose a high natural plateau to ensure his pyramid was visible. He named his pyramid Akhet-Khufu, meaning "horizon of Khufu."
Recent studies suggest a harbor connected to the Nile was active at Giza during Khufu’s time. Sediment cores from the floodplain show deposits matching an Old Kingdom port, known as "Khufu’s harbor." Researchers believe this harbor helped transport stones and supplies for construction.
In later Egyptian traditions
Khufu had a large group of religious workers during the Old Kingdom. At the end of the 6th dynasty, archaeologists found evidence of at least 67 mortuary priests and 6 high officials who worked at the necropolis. Ten of these people were already serving during the late 4th dynasty (seven were members of the royal family), 28 worked during the 5th dynasty, and 29 worked during the 6th dynasty. This was unusual because Khufu’s father, Sneferu, had only 18 mortuary priests during the same time, and other pharaohs like Djedefra had even fewer. These religious groups were important for the economy because they needed special lands to provide offerings. Many land names from Khufu’s time are recorded, but by the end of the 6th dynasty, the number of such lands decreased quickly. By the start of the 7th dynasty, no land names from Khufu’s time were recorded anymore.
At Wadi Hammamat, a rock inscription from the 12th dynasty lists five names in cartouches: Khufu, Djedefra, Khafra, Baufra, and Djedefhor. Because royal names are written in cartouches, some people thought Baufra and Djedefhor were short-lived rulers. However, other sources show they were princes, not kings. Khufu’s name appearing in this list suggests he and his followers might have been worshipped as protectors. This idea is supported by discoveries like alabaster vessels with Khufu’s name found at Koptos, a place visited by travelers from Wadi Hammamat.
A famous story from the 13th dynasty, the Papyrus Westcar, describes Khufu witnessing a magical event and receiving a prophecy from a magician named Dedi. In the story, Khufu is shown as both strict and fair. He orders a prisoner’s execution to test Dedi’s magic but later accepts Dedi’s alternative plan, questions the prophecy, and rewards Dedi. Historians debate whether Khufu was portrayed as cruel or kind. Earlier scholars, like Adolf Erman and Kurt Heinrich Sethe, believed Khufu was harsh, relying on ancient Greek accounts that exaggerated his negative traits. However, other scholars, such as Dietrich Wildung, argue that Khufu’s decision was an act of mercy, as the prisoner would have been freed if Dedi’s magic worked. Verena Lepper and Miriam Lichtheim suggest the author intentionally made Khufu’s character unclear to create a mysterious figure.
During the New Kingdom, the necropolis of Khufu and its religious groups were reorganized, making Giza an important religious and economic site again. In the 18th dynasty, King Amenhotep II built a memorial temple and a royal fame stele near the Great Sphinx. His son, Thutmose IV, cleared the Sphinx of sand and placed a stele called the “Dream Stele” between its paws. Both steles share similar stories but do not mention who built the Sphinx.
At the end of the 18th dynasty, a temple for the goddess Isis was built near Khufu’s satellite pyramid (G1-c) at his necropolis. This temple was expanded during the 21st dynasty and further added to in the 26th dynasty. Priests who served both Isis and Khufu, called “Hem-netjer-Iset” and “Hem-netjer-Khufu,” worked there. A golden seal ring with the name of a priest, Neferibrê, was also found at Giza during this time.
In the Late Period, many scarabs with Khufu’s name were sold to people, possibly as lucky charms. Over 30 of these scarabs are preserved today. At Isis’ temple, a family tree of priests is displayed, listing names from 670 to 488 BC. A famous stone tablet from the same period, the Inventory Stela, mentions Khufu and his wife, Henutsen. However, modern scholars believe Khufu was no longer seen as a personally worshipped ancestor but rather as a symbolic figure linked to the history of the Isis temple.
In ancient Greek traditions
The later Egyptian historian Manetho called Khufu "Sûphis" and said he ruled for 63 years. He also claimed that Khufu built the Great Pyramid. Manetho mentioned that his contemporary, Herodotus, referred to the pyramid’s builder as "Khéops." Manetho believed "Khéops" and "Sûphis" were two different kings. Manetho also wrote that Khufu faced criticism for disrespecting the gods and that he wrote a sacred book about this. He said he received this book during his travels in Egypt. Modern Egyptologists question the story of the "Sacred Book," as it would be unusual for a pharaoh to write books or for such a valuable document to be sold easily.
Herodotus, a Greek historian, described Khufu as a heretic and cruel ruler. In his work Historiae, he wrote that during Khufu’s reign, Egypt suffered greatly. He closed temples, stopped priests from offering sacrifices, and forced Egyptians to work for him. Workers were ordered to transport stones from quarries in the Arabian mountains to the Nile, then move them to the Libyan mountains. At times, 100,000 men worked on these tasks for three months. It took 10 years to build a causeway for moving stones, which Herodotus called a work nearly as impressive as the pyramid itself. He described the causeway as 5 furlongs long, 10 fathoms wide, and 8 fathoms high, made of polished stone with carved figures.
Building the pyramid itself took 20 years. It was a square shape, with each side measuring 800 feet and the height equal to the side length. The pyramid was made of smooth, precisely fitted stones, each at least 30 feet long. It was built in steps, with workers using wooden devices to lift stones to higher levels. Inscriptions on the pyramid recorded that 1,600 silver talents were spent on food for workers, such as radishes, onions, and leeks. Herodotus also wrote that Khufu’s cruelty reached a point where he sent his daughter to a brothel to raise money. She collected stones from customers, which were later used to build a smaller pyramid near the Great Pyramid.
Herodotus also wrote about Khufu’s successor, Khafre, who ruled for 56 years. He described Khafre as equally harsh and said that during their combined reigns of 106 years, Egypt faced great hardship. The temples remained closed for the entire time. Herodotus noted that Egyptians avoided mentioning these kings’ names due to their hatred for them. Instead, they called the pyramids after Philítîs, a shepherd who lived in the area during their time.
Diodorus, another ancient historian, claimed that Khufu was so disliked that priests secretly moved his sarcophagus and body to a hidden grave. This supported the idea that the pyramids were built by enslaved workers. However, Diodorus disagreed with Herodotus, calling his stories "fairy tales" and "entertaining fiction." He said the Egyptians of his time could not confirm who built the pyramids and doubted the accuracy of interpreters. He suggested the Great Pyramid was built by a king named Harmais, the Khafre Pyramid by Amasis II, and the Menkaura Pyramid by Inaros I.
Diodorus described the Great Pyramid as once covered in white limestone with a capstone on top. He believed ramps were used during construction, and these ramps were later removed after the outer shell was completed. He estimated that 300,000 workers built the pyramid over 20 years.
In Arabic traditions
In AD 642, the Arabs took control of Egypt. When they arrived at the Giza pyramids, they tried to find out who built these large structures. At that time, no one living in Egypt could explain how the pyramids were made, and no one could read the Egyptian hieroglyphs. Because of this, Arab historians recorded their own ideas and stories about the pyramids.
One well-known story about Khufu and his pyramid is in a book called Hitat (al-Mawāʿiẓ wa-'l-iʿtibār fī ḏikr al-ḫiṭaṭ wa-'l-ʾāṯār), written in 1430 by Muhammad al-Maqrizi (1364–1442). This book includes many theories and myths about Khufu, especially about the Great Pyramid. Although King Khufu is rarely mentioned, many Arab writers believed the Great Pyramid and others were built by the god Hermes, whom the Arabs called Idris.
Al-Maqrizi writes that Khufu was called Saurid, Salhuk, and/or Sarjak by the biblical Amalekites. He also says that Khufu built the pyramids after having repeated nightmares. In these dreams, the earth turned upside-down, stars fell from the sky, and people screamed in fear. Another dream showed stars falling and taking humans to live under two large mountains. Khufu then received a warning from his prophets about a terrible flood that would destroy Egypt. To protect his treasures and books of wisdom, Khufu built the three pyramids at Giza.
Modern egyptological evaluations
Over time, Egyptologists studied possible reasons for changes in Khufu’s reputation. By comparing ancient documents from his time, later writings, and Greek and Coptic texts, they found that Khufu’s reputation changed slowly. Positive views of the king remained common during the Greek and Ptolemaic periods. For example, Alan B. Lloyd noted documents from the 6th dynasty that mention a town called Menat-Khufu, meaning “nurse of Khufu.” This town was still respected during the Middle Kingdom. Lloyd believed such a warm name would not have been used to honor a king with a bad or questionable reputation. He also pointed out that many places outside Giza had mortuary cults dedicated to Khufu, even during the Saitic and Persian periods.
The Lamentation Texts from the First Intermediate Period describe ancient tombs as symbols of vanity. However, these texts do not criticize the kings themselves, so they do not suggest Khufu had a bad reputation.
Modern Egyptologists view stories by Herodotus and Diodorus as biased, influenced by their own beliefs. They warn that these writers lived about 2,000 years after Khufu and relied on outdated sources. Some Egyptologists also note that ancient Egyptian beliefs had changed since the Old Kingdom. The large pyramids, like those at Giza, likely shocked Greeks and later priests because they reminded them of Akhenaten’s grand building projects. This negative view may have been applied to Khufu.
During Khufu’s time, only the king was allowed to create large statues from precious stones. Greeks and later priests might have seen these monuments as signs of Khufu’s ambition. Roman writers like Pliny the Elder and Frontinus mocked the pyramids, calling them “idle” or “foolish.” Egyptologists believe these criticisms had political or social reasons. It is strange that the pyramids’ uses were forgotten, but Khufu’s name remained remembered.
Another clue about Khufu’s reputation comes from the Coptic reading of his name. In Coptic, “Khufu” was pronounced “Shêfet,” which could mean “bad luck” or “sinful.” This pronunciation later influenced the Greek name “Suphis.” It is possible that Greek and Roman writers unknowingly used this negative meaning.
Some Egyptologists suggest that ancient historians got their stories not only from priests but also from people living near the time the pyramids were built. Common people might have shared negative views about the pyramids, and priests’ mortuary traditions were part of this. However, long-lasting stories do not always mean widespread popularity. For example, Diodorus is trusted more than Herodotus because he was more careful in collecting stories. Some stories about the Giza pyramids may have been influenced by legends from Greek and Roman times, as the pyramids were reused by later kings and nobles.
Modern Egyptologists also question the reliability of Arabian stories. Medieval Arab writers followed strict Islamic beliefs, which only allowed one god to be worshipped. This led them to replace Egyptian kings and gods with biblical figures. For example, the Egyptian god Thoth became the prophet Henoch, and Khufu was sometimes called “Saurid” or “Šaddād bīn 'Âd.” Scholars also note contradictions in the writings of Al-Maqrizi, such as conflicting claims about who built the pyramids and who the Copts believed was responsible.
In popular culture
Khufu is a well-known historical figure who appears in many modern works, similar to other famous ancient rulers like Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Tutankhamen. His story is included in movies, books, and documentaries. In 1827, Jane C. Loudon wrote a novel titled The Mummy! A Tale of the 22nd Century. The story describes a future world in the 22nd century that is very advanced but morally corrupt. Only the mummy of Khufu can save this world. In 1939, Nagib Mahfuz wrote a book called Khufu's Wisdom, which is based on ancient stories from the Papyrus Westcar.
In 1997, French author Guy Rachet published a book series titled Le roman des pyramides, which includes five volumes. The first two books, Le temple soleil and Rêve de pierre, focus on Khufu and his tomb. In 2004, spiritualist Page Bryant wrote a novel called The Second Coming of the Star Gods, which suggests Khufu may have had a connection to the stars. In 2010, Raymond Mayotte published a book titled The Legend of The Vampire Khufu, which describes Khufu awakening as a vampire in his pyramid.
Films that feature Khufu or the Great Pyramid include Land of the Pharaohs (1955), a movie about the construction of the Great Pyramid of Khufu, and Stargate (1994), in which an alien device is discovered near the pyramids.
Some theories claim that Khufu’s pyramid was built with the help of aliens and that Khufu reused the monument, but these ideas ignore or misrepresent archaeological evidence.
A near-Earth asteroid is named after Khufu: 3362 Khufu.
Khufu and his pyramid are also mentioned in video games. For example, in Tomb Raider – The Last Revelation, players must enter Khufu’s pyramid and face the god Seth. In Duck Tales 2 for the Game Boy, players guide Uncle Scrooge through a dangerous pyramid. In the game Titan Quest, the Giza Plateau includes Khufu’s tomb and the Great Sphinx. Khufu’s tomb is also referenced in Assassin’s Creed Origins.