The Library of Celsus (Greek: Βιβλιοθήκη του Κέλσου) is an ancient Roman building located in Ephesus, Anatolia, near the modern town of Selçuk in the İzmir Province of western Turkey. The structure was built in the 110s CE by Tiberius Julius Aquila Polemaeanus, a Roman consul, as a memorial for his father, Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus, who was a former proconsul of Asia. The library was completed during the reign of Emperor Hadrian, after Aquila’s death.
The Library of Celsus is regarded as an impressive example of ancient Roman architecture. It was one of the few great libraries of the ancient world that remained in the Roman Empire. It was the third-largest library in the Greco-Roman world, following those in Alexandria and Pergamum. It is believed to have held about 12,000 scrolls. Celsus is buried in a decorated marble sarcophagus beneath the library. The interior of the building covered an area of approximately 180 square meters (2,000 square feet).
The library’s interior and contents were destroyed by a fire caused either by an earthquake or a Gothic invasion in 262 CE. The building’s façade was damaged by an earthquake in the 10th or 11th century. The structure remained in ruins for many years until archaeologists rebuilt the façade between 1970 and 1978.
History
Celsus had a successful career in the military and politics. He served as a commander in the Roman army and later became a consul for the Roman Empire in 92 CE. Celsus was a Greek person who lived in Sardis or Ephesus and came from a family of priests who worked for Rome. He was one of the first people from the Greek-speaking eastern provinces of the Roman Republic to become a consul, the highest elected position in Imperial Rome. Some scholars believe he might have been the first Greek to become a Roman senator, though this is still debated. He later became the governor of Asia, a Roman province that covered an area similar to modern-day Turkey. Celsus held positions as a Roman senator, consul, and another official, rising quickly in rank. After his career, he retired and returned to Ephesus, his hometown.
After Celsus died, his son, Tiberius Julius Aquila Polemaeanus, built a library in his father’s honor using methods from both Greece and Rome. However, the library was not completed until after Aquila’s death. An inscription states that Celsus left 25,000 denarii, a type of coin, to fund the library’s books. In Ancient Rome, wealthy people were expected to use their resources to help their communities. This idea spread to other areas, like Ephesus, where Aquila built the library to honor his father and benefit the city. The library also reflected Roman values, such as sharing knowledge and improving literacy.
Celsus’ family likely became Roman citizens during the reign of Emperor Tiberius (14–37 CE), as Celsus was named after the emperor, possibly as a sign of respect. The library operated as a public space from around 117–135 CE until 262 CE. The main floor had a reading room with large windows that let in natural light. Shelves built into the walls held papyrus scrolls that visitors could read, but borrowing was not allowed because books were rare and hard to make. Some scrolls might have been stored in separate boxes, allowing the library to hold up to 16,000 scrolls.
The library’s interior and contents were destroyed by fire in 262 CE. It is unclear if the fire was caused by a natural disaster or a Gothic invasion, as the city faced both events that year. Only the library’s outer wall remained until an earthquake in the 10th or 11th century damaged it further. Between 1970 and 1978, German archaeologist Volker Michael Strocka led an effort to rebuild the library. He studied pieces found by Austrian archaeologists between 1903 and 1904. Some parts of the library had been taken to museums in Vienna and Istanbul. Missing pieces were replaced with copies or left empty. Only the outer wall was rebuilt, while the rest of the structure remains in ruins.
Architecture
The east-facing marble front of the library is decorated with carvings of plants and statues of people. The outside was built using a Greek technique called false perspective. This means the columns inside are longer, while the columns on the outside are taller. Even though the columns are not the same, they look identical. This makes the library appear larger and more impressive than it actually is. The design includes carvings of acanthus leaves, scrolls, and fasces emblems, which represent authority and are linked to Celsus's role as a consul. The library sits on a raised platform, with nine wide steps leading to three main entrances. These entrances have large windows, which may have had glass or latticework.
On either side of the entrances are four pairs of Composite columns, placed on raised bases. Above them are Corinthian columns. The lower-level columns frame four small niches containing statues of female figures representing virtues: Sophia (wisdom), Episteme (knowledge), Ennoia (intelligence), and Arete (excellence). These statues were not the originals but were later replaced with other female statues. These virtues reflect the library's purpose as both a library and a tomb, showing that Celsus lived by these values and that visitors could learn from them by using the library. This style of building with carved frames and niches for statues is similar to the skene, or stage, in ancient Greek theaters, and is called "scenographic." The second level of columns frames four platforms that once held statues of Celsus and his son. A third row of columns may have existed in ancient times, but only two remain today.
Inside, the library has three levels of bookshelves, accessible by stairs. The main staircase is flanked by inscriptions in Greek and Latin, making the library welcoming to both Greeks and Romans. A Hellenistic scroll near the doorway includes a Roman symbol, showing the blending of these cultures. Roman features include Composite column capitals and a three-part stage-like front. Other Roman designs, such as reliefs inspired by Julius Caesar, were new to Ephesus and Asia Minor. The interior, which has not been fully restored, was a single rectangular room measuring 17×11 meters, with a central apse framed by a large arch. The apse had a platform for a statue, likely of Celsus, though some believe it may have been Minerva, the Roman goddess of wisdom.
Underneath the apse was a crypt containing Celsus’s decorated marble sarcophagus. It was unusual in Roman times to bury someone in a library or within the city, showing how important Celsus was as a public official. The three remaining walls had niches, about 2.55×1.1×0.58 meters, to hold shelves for scrolls. These niches had double walls, which may have helped control humidity and protect the scrolls from extreme temperatures. The upper level had a gallery with a balcony overlooking the main floor, creating a grand space. This balcony was reached by stairs built into the walls, which also supported the structure. The ceiling was flat and may have had a round opening in the center to let in light.
The library’s design, with its detailed and balanced front, shows how Greek styles influenced Roman architecture, especially in the second century. After the earthquake on October 20, 2020, the rebuilt library was tested and showed good stability during the event.
Portraiture of Celsus
The armored statue of Celsus displayed in the Istanbul Archaeological Museum was one of three statues of the building's sponsor placed on the second level of the structure's front. Celsus is shown with a strong jaw, curly hair, and a neat beard, features inspired by Greek art that match the artistic style of the building's front. The statue copies characteristics of imperial portraits from the time of Emperor Hadrian, indicating it was created after the deaths of both Celsus and his son Aquila. The decision to show Celsus wearing full armor suggests his descendants believed his military achievements were important and something they were proud of.
Commemoration
The front of the building was shown on the back side of the Turkish 20 million lira banknote used from 2001 to 2005 and on the back side of the 20 new lira banknote used from 2005 to 2009.