Manichaeism was a major world religion started in the third century AD by a prophet named Mani in the Sasanian Empire. It taught a belief about two opposing forces: a good spiritual world of light and an evil material world of darkness. Over time, light is slowly taken away from the material world and returned to the spiritual world.

Mani’s teachings combined ideas from many religions, including Babylonian, Greek, Zoroastrian, Buddhist, and Christian traditions. Most forms of Manichaeism saw Mani as the last great prophet, following others like Zoroaster, the Buddha, and Jesus, whose teachings had been changed by later people. The Manichaean holy books included seven writings originally in Syriac, and Mani was said to have created a book of pictures. Religious ceremonies included prayers, giving money to help others, fasting, and daily meals for followers. Communities focused on confessing sins and singing hymns.

Manichaeism spread quickly across Aramaic-speaking areas, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East. It was very popular between the third and seventh centuries AD and was one of the most widespread religions in the world. Manichaean churches and writings were found as far east as China and as far west as Roman Iberia. Before Islam spread, Manichaeism was a major competitor to early Christianity. However, it was persecuted by the Roman government and the Christian church, and it mostly disappeared from Roman lands by the end of the sixth century.

Manichaeism continued in the East. It remained in West Asia until the Abbasid rulers banned it in the 10th century. Missionaries and trade brought it to China in the seventh century, where it adapted to local traditions. Manichaeism was the official religion of the Uyghur Khaganate until 830, but it was later banned by the Tang dynasty. It returned during the Mongol Yuan dynasty in the 13th and 14th centuries. Over time, Chinese rulers persecuted Manichaeism, and it was absorbed into Buddhism and Taoism by the end of the 14th century.

Some Manichaean temples still exist in China, like the Cao’an temple in Fujian. The religion may have influenced later groups in Europe, such as the Paulicians, Bogomils, and Cathars. Although most original Manichaean writings are lost, many translated and partial texts remain.

Terminology

The word "Manichaeism" is a common mistake in spelling. The correct form is "Manichaism," which comes from the ancient Greek word Μανιχαϊσμός (Manikhaïsmós) through Latin "Manichaismus." The Greek term is based on Μανιχαῖος (Manikhaîos), which means "Manichaeus," one of the names used for Mani in Greek writings.

In English, a person who follows Manichaeism is called a Manichaean, Manichean, or Manichee.

History

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Mani was an Iranian who was born in 216 AD in or near Ctesiphon (now al-Mada'in, Iraq) in the Parthian Empire. According to the Cologne Mani-Codex, Mani's parents were members of the Jewish Christian Gnostic sect known as the Elcesaites.

Mani composed seven works, six of which were written in the late-Aramaic Syriac language. The seventh, the Shabuhragan, was written by Mani in Middle Persian and presented to the Sasanian emperor Shapur I by Mani himself. Although there is no evidence that Shapur I was a follower of Mani, he tolerated the spread of Manichaeism and refrained from persecuting it within his empire's boundaries.

According to Michel Tardieu, Mani invented the unique version of the Syriac script known as the Manichaean alphabet, which was used in all Manichaean works written within the Sasanian Empire, whether in Syriac or Middle Persian, as well as in most works written within the Uyghur Khaganate. The primary language of Babylonia—and the administrative and cultural language of the Empire—at that time was Eastern Middle Aramaic, which had three principal dialects: Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, the language of the Babylonian Talmud; Mandaic, the language of Mandaeism; and Syriac, which was the language of Mani and the Syriac Christians.

During the spread of Manichaeism, established religions like Zoroastrianism remained prevalent, while early Christianity was gaining both social and political influence. Despite having fewer followers, Manichaeism attracted the support of several high-ranking political figures. With the backing of the Sasanian Empire, Mani embarked on missionary expeditions. However, after failing to gain the favor of the next generation of Persian royalty and facing disapproval from the Zoroastrian clergy, Mani was imprisoned and ultimately died awaiting execution by the Persian emperor Bahram I. His death is estimated to have occurred around 276–277 AD.

Mani believed that the teachings of the Buddha, Zoroaster, and Jesus of Nazareth were incomplete; that his revelations were meant to be shared universally; and that his teachings comprised a new "religion of light." Manichaean writings indicate that Mani received revelations when he was 12 and again at 24, and that over this period he grew dissatisfied with the Elcesaites, the Gnostic sect of Jewish Christianity he was born into. Iain Gardner, in The Founder of Manichaeism, argues that Jain influence on Mani is likely due to the extreme asceticism and specific doctrines of Mahāvīra's community, making it even more plausible than influence from the Buddha. Richard C. C. Fynes, in 1996, argued that various Jain influences, particularly ideas on the existence of plant souls, were transmitted from Western Kshatrapa territories to Mesopotamia and then integrated into Manichaean beliefs. Mani wore colorful clothing, which was unusual for the time, and reminded some Romans of a stereotypical Persian magus or warlord, earning him ire in the Greco-Roman world.

Mani began preaching at an early age and was possibly influenced by contemporary Babylonian-Aramaic movements like Mandaeism; Aramaic translations of non-canonical Jewish apocalyptic works similar to those found at Qumran (e.g., the Book of Enoch); and by the Syriac dualist Gnostic writer Bardaisan (who lived a generation before Mani). With the discovery of the Cologne Mani-Codex, it also became clear that his history with the Elcesaites influenced his writings.

Mani taught that the soul of a righteous individual returns to Paradise upon death. In contrast, the soul of someone who indulges in earthly desires—such as fornication, procreation, accumulating possessions, cultivating the land, harvesting, eating meat, and drinking wine—faces condemnation and is destined to be reborn in a cycle of different bodies.

According to biographies preserved by ibn al-Nadim and the Persian polymath al-Biruni, Mani received a revelation as a youth from a spirit, whom he would later call his "Twin" (Imperial Aramaic: תְּאוֹמָא, romanized: Tāʾūmā; pronounced [tɑʔwmɑ]); Syzygos (Koine Greek: σύζυγος, lit. 'together-yoked'), in the Cologne Mani-Codex; "Double"; "Protective Angel"; or "Divine Self." This spirit taught him wisdom, which he later developed into a religion. It was his "twin" who brought Mani to self-realization. Mani claimed to be the Paraclete of the Truth promised by Jesus in the book of John 14:16 of the New Testament.

According to the scholar of Manichaeism Samuel N. C. Lieu, the theological roles of Jesus in Manichaeism were highly complex.

Augustine of Hippo also noted that Mani declared himself to be an "apostle of Jesus Christ." Manichaean tradition is noted to have claimed that Mani was the reincarnation of religious figures from previous eras, including the Buddha, Zoroaster, and Jesus himself.

Academics note that much of what is known about Manichaeism comes from later 10th- and 11th-century Muslim historians like al-Biruni and ibn al-Nadim in his al-Fihrist; the latter "ascribed to Mani the claim to be the Seal of the Prophets." However, given the Islamic milieu of Arabian Peninsula and Persia at the time, it stands to reason that Manichaeans would regularly assert in their evangelism that Mani, not Muhammad, was the Seal of the Prophets. In reality, for Mani, the metaphorical expression "Seal of Prophets" was not a reference to his finality in a lineage of prophets as it means in Islam, but rather as final to his followers (who attest to his message as a "seal").

Other textual sources of Mani's scripture were the Aramaic Jewish Book of Enoch, 2 Enoch, and The Book of Giants. Mani quoted the latter directly and expanded upon it, making it—a specifically Manichaean version—one of the six original Syriac writings of the Manichaeans. Besides short references by non-Manichaean authors through the centuries, no original editions of the Manichaean Book of Giants were available until the 20th century.

Scattered fragments of both the original Aramaic Book of Giants, which was analyzed and published by Józef Milik in 1976, and the Manichaean version of the same name (analyzed and published by Walter Bruno Henning in 1943) were discovered along with the Dead Sea Scrolls in the Judaean Desert in the 20th century and the Manichaean writings of the Uyghur Manichaean kingdom in Turpan. Henning wrote in his analysis of them:

By comparing the cosmology of the books of Enoch to the Book of Giants, as well as the description of the Manichaean myth, scholars have observed that the Manichaean cosmology can be described as being based, in part, on the description of the cosmology developed in detail within the Enochic literature. This literature describes the being who the prophets saw in their ascent to Heaven as a king who sits on a throne in the highest of the heavens. In Manichaean myth, this being, the "Great King of Honor," became a deity who guards the entrance to the World of Light, placed at the seventh of ten heavens. In the Aramaic Book of Enoch, the Qumran writings, overall, and in the original Syriac section of Manichaean scriptures quoted by Theodore bar Konai, he is called malkā rabbā d-iqārā ("the Great King of Honor").

Mani was also influenced by writings of the gnostic Bardaisan (154–222 CE), who, like Mani, wrote in Syriac and presented a dualistic interpretation of the world in terms of light and darkness in combination with elements from Christianity.

Noting Mani's travels to the Kushan Empire (several religious paintings in Bamyan are attributed to him) at the beginning of his proselytizing career, Richard Foltz postulates Buddhist influences in Manichaeism:

Lokakṣema, a Buddhist monk living in second-century Kushan, began translating the scriptures of Pure Land Buddhism into Chinese during the century preceding Mani's advent. Extant Chinese Manichaean texts frequently employ uniquely Buddhist terms taken from the Pure Land scriptures, including the term

Teachings and beliefs

Mani's teachings explained the origin of evil by suggesting that God is not all-powerful and that two opposing divine forces exist. Manichaeism believes in a dualistic view of good and evil. A key idea in Manichaeism is that the good power (God) is strong but not all-powerful and is opposed by the eternal evil power (the devil). Humans, the world, and souls are seen as results of a battle between God's representative—called Primal Man—and the devil.

Each person is viewed as a place where these forces struggle. The soul defines a person but is influenced by light (good) and darkness (evil). This struggle happens everywhere, and the human body is not seen as evil. Instead, both the Earth and human flesh have both light and dark parts. Natural events, like rain, are seen as physical signs of this spiritual struggle. Therefore, Manichaeism explains evil by saying the world was created imperfectly, without God's involvement, and was made by the devil fighting against God.

Manichaeism describes a detailed conflict between the spiritual world of light and the material world of darkness. Beings in both worlds have names. Many sources describe Manichaean beliefs. Two writings are likely the closest to Mani's original teachings: a Syriac text by Theodore bar Konai from the 8th century and parts of Mani's Shabuhragan written in Middle Persian, found in Turpan. These texts summarize Mani's teachings for Shapur I.

From these and other writings—like the Acta Archelai and works by Alexander of Lycopolis, Titus of Bostra, Severus of Antiochia, Theodoret, and Saint Augustine—Jonas Hans created a description of Manichaean beliefs about the universe. Below is a list of Manichaean deities and events in their universe. The creation of the universe in Manichaean beliefs happened in three stages:

In the 6th century, many Manichaeans believed the Earth was shaped like a box surrounded by crystal walls, with three sky domes above it. These domes represented the "three heavens" from Chaldean religion.

Since its creation by Mani, Manichaeism has described deities and events in its universe. These same deities appear in every language and region where Manichaeism spread, whether in the original Syriac text quoted by Theodore bar Konai, the Latin terms used by Saint Augustine from Mani's Epistola Fundamenti, or Persian and Chinese translations as Manichaeism moved eastward. While the original Syriac text kept Mani's original descriptions, translations into other languages and cultures led to versions of the gods not mentioned in the original Syriac writings. Chinese translations, in particular, combined ideas from Chinese Buddhism with Manichaean beliefs.

• The Father of Greatness (Syriac: ܐܒܐ ܕܪܒܘܬܐ; Middle Persian: pīd ī wuzurgīh; Chinese: 無上明尊; lit. "Unsurpassed Divinity of Light" or 薩緩; lit. "Zurvan")
• His Four Faces (Greek: ὁ τετραπρόσωπος πατήρ τοῦ μεγέθους; Chinese: 四寂法身; lit. "Four Silent Dharmakayas")
• Divinity (Middle Persian: yzd; Chinese: 清净)
• Light (Middle Persian and Parthian: rwšn; Chinese: 光明)
• Power (Middle Persian: zwr; Chinese: 大力)
• Wisdom (Middle Persian: whyh; Chinese: 智慧)
• His Five Shekhinas (Syriac: ܚܡܫ ܫܟܝܢܬܗ; Chinese: 五種大; lit. "five great ones"):

• The Great Spirit (Middle Persian: Waxsh zindag; Latin: Spiritus Potens)
• The Mother of Life (Syriac: ܐܡܐ ܕܚܝܐ; Chinese: 善母佛; lit. "Good Mother Buddha")
• The First Man (Syriac: ܐܢܫܐ ܩܕܡܝܐ; Middle Persian: Ohrmazd Bay; Latin: Primus Homo)
• First Enthymesis (Middle Persian: hndyšyšn nxwysṯyn; Chinese: 先意; lit. "First Understanding")
• His five Sons (the five Light Elements; Parthian: panj rōšn; Middle Persian: Amahrāspandān; Chinese: 五明子):
• Ether (Parthian: ardāw; Middle Persian: frâwahr; Chinese: 氣)
• Wind (Parthian and Middle Persian: wād; Chinese: 風)
• Light (Parthian and Middle Persian: rōšn; Chinese: 明)
• Water (Parthian and Middle Persian: āb; Chinese: 水)
• Fire (Parthian and Middle Persian: ādur; Chinese: 火)
• His sixth Son, the Call-God (Syriac: ܩܪܝܐ; Middle Persian: Padvaxtag; Chinese: 觀音; lit. "Guanyin," the Chinese Bodhisattva of Compassion). Sent from the Living Spirit to awaken the First Man from his battle with the forces of darkness.

• The Third Messenger (Syriac: ܐܝܙܓܕܐ; Middle Persian: narēsahyazad; Parthian: hridīg frēštag; Latin: tertius legatus)
• Jesus the Splendour (Syriac: ܝܫܘܥ ܙܝܘܐ; Chinese: 光明夷數; lit. "Jesus of Bright Light" or 夷數精和; lit. "Jesus the Essence of Harmony"). He was sent to awaken Adam and Eve to the source of the spiritual light trapped within their bodies.
• The Maiden of Light (Middle Persian: …).

The Manichaean Church

The Manichaean Church was organized into two groups: the Elect and the Hearers. The Elect followed strict vows of Manichaeism, which included not eating meat or alcohol, and avoiding activities like harvesting crops or preparing food. Mani taught that harvesting crops was similar to killing plants. The Hearers, who did not take vows, helped by preparing food for the Elect. In return, the Elect prayed for the Hearers to help them avoid sin.

These groups were similar to divisions in early Christianity, but their meanings were different. In Chinese records, terms from Middle Persian and Parthian languages were written using sounds rather than translated. Augustine of Hippo recorded these terms.

The church had a leader called the Patriarch, originally based in Ctesiphon and later in Samarkand starting in the ninth century. Mani’s first successor was Mār Sīsin, and another important leader was Abū Hilāl al-Dayhūri in the eighth century.

There were 12 Apostles, including three of Mani’s original followers: Mār Pattī (Mani’s father), Akouas, and Mar Ammo. The church also had 72 Bishops, with Mār Addā being one of Mani’s original disciples who held this title. There were 360 Presbyters, and the general group of Elect, as well as the Hearers, each had specific roles within the church. Titles for these groups were also recorded in Latin, Syriac, Middle Persian, and Chinese.

Religious practices

From Manichaean sources, Manichaeans practiced daily prayers. Those who followed the most strict rules prayed seven times a day, while others prayed four times. Different sources describe different times for these prayers. The Fihrist, written by al-Nadim, mentions prayers at afternoon, mid-afternoon, just after sunset, and at nightfall. Another source, al-Biruni, records prayers at dawn, sunrise, noon, and dusk. Those who followed the strict rules also prayed at mid-afternoon, half an hour after nightfall, and midnight. Al-Nadim’s account likely aligns with Muslim prayer times, while al-Biruni’s report may describe an older tradition not influenced by Islam.

When al-Nadim’s description was the only detailed source, some believed Muslims adopted these practices during the Abbasid Caliphate. However, the Arabic text from al-Nadim matches descriptions found in Egyptian texts from the fourth century.

Each prayer began with a cleansing using water or other substances if water was unavailable. It included blessings for apostles and spirits. Practitioners prostrated themselves to the ground and rose twelve times during each prayer. During the day, they faced the Sun, and at night, they faced the Moon. If the Moon was not visible, they turned toward the north.

Faustus of Mileve wrote that celestial bodies were not worshipped directly. Instead, they were seen as "ships" carrying light particles from the world to the supreme god, who exists beyond time and space. These celestial bodies also served as homes for divine emanations, such as Jesus the Splendour. Augustine of Hippo recorded that ten prayers were performed. The first was for the Father of Greatness, followed by prayers for lesser deities, spirits, angels, and finally for the elect, who sought freedom from rebirth and pain to reach peace in the realm of light. Similarly, the Uyghur confession describes four prayers directed to the supreme God (Äzrua), the God of the Sun and Moon, and fivefold God and the buddhas.

Primary sources

Mani wrote seven books that included the teachings of his religion. Only pieces of these original writings and their translations remain today. Most of these fragments were found in Egypt and Turkistan during the 20th century.

The original six Syriac writings are no longer available, but their Syriac names have been recorded. Some fragments and quotes from them still exist. A long quote from the 8th-century Nestorian Christian writer Theodore Bar Konai shows that the original Syriac Aramaic writings of Mani did not use terms from Iranian or Zoroastrian religions. The names for Manichaean gods in the original Syriac writings were in Aramaic. However, Mani began adapting his religion to Zoroastrian beliefs during his lifetime, as seen in his book Shabuhragan, which he wrote for the Sasanian emperor Shapur I.

This book mentions Zoroastrian figures like Ahura Mazda, Angra Mainyu, and Āz. People often think of Manichaeism as a Persian religion because of the many Middle Persian, Parthian, and Sogdian (and Turkish) texts found by German researchers near Turpan in modern-day Xinjiang, China, in the early 1900s. However, based on the original Syriac descriptions (as recorded by Theodore Bar Konai), Manichaeism may have started in Aramaic Babylonia, near other new Aramaic religious movements like Talmudic Judaism and Mandaeism, which also appeared in Babylonia around the 3rd century.

The original six sacred books of Manichaeism were written in Syriac Aramaic and translated into other languages to spread the religion. As it spread eastward, the writings were translated into Middle Persian, Parthian, Sogdian, Tocharian, Uyghur, and Chinese. As it spread westward, they were translated into Greek, Coptic, and Latin. Most surviving Manichaean texts exist only as Coptic and Medieval Chinese translations of the original, now-lost versions.

Henning describes how the translation process influenced Manichaeans in Central Asia:

• The Gospel of Mani (Syriac: ܐܘܢܓܠܝܘܢ /ʔɛwwanɡallijon/; Koine Greek: εὐαγγέλιον "good news, gospel"). Quotations from the first chapter were recorded in Arabic by ibn al-Nadim in his 938 book Fihrist, a catalog of known writings.
• The Treasure of Life
• The Treatise (Coptic: πραγματεία, pragmateia)
• Secrets
• The Book of Giants: Original pieces were found at Qumran (pre-Manichaean) and Turpan.
• Epistles: Augustine included quotes from Mani’s Fundamental Epistle in some of his writings against Manichaeism.
• Psalms and Prayers: A Coptic Manichaean Psalms Book discovered in Egypt in the early 1900s was published by Charles Allberry using manuscripts from the Chester Beatty collection and the Berlin Academy (1938–39).

• Shabuhragan, dedicated to Shapur I: Original Middle Persian fragments were found in Turpan. Arabic quotes were recorded by al-Biruni.

• The Ardahang, or "Picture Book": In Iranian tradition, this was one of Mani’s holy books. It was called Aržang, a Parthian word meaning "Worthy," and was decorated with paintings. Iranians later called Mani "The Painter."
• The Kephalaia of the Teacher (Κεφαλαια, "Discourses"): Found in Coptic translation.
• On the Origin of His Body: Title of the Cologne Mani-Codex, a Greek translation of an Aramaic book about Mani’s early life.

• Portions of the Book of Enoch literature, such as the Book of Giants
• Texts related to the apostle Thomas (who traveled to India and was venerated in Syria), such as parts of the Syriac Acts of Thomas and Psalms of Thomas. The Gospel of Thomas was also linked to Manichaeans by Cyril of Jerusalem, a 4th-century Church leader.
• The story of Barlaam and Josaphat: This tale originated from an Indian story about the Buddha, passed through a Manichaean version, and later became a Christian saint’s story in the West.

In later centuries, as Manichaeism spread through Persian-speaking regions and reached the Uyghur Khaganate and the Uyghur kingdom of Turpan (destroyed around 1335), Middle Persian and Parthian prayers (āfrīwan or āfurišn) and Parthian hymn-cycles (Huwīdagmān and Angad Rōšnan by Mar Ammo) were added to Manichaean writings. A translation of these texts produced the Manichaean Chinese Hymnscroll (Chinese: 摩尼教下部讚; pinyin: Móní-jiào Xiàbù Zàn), which Lieu translated as "Hymns for the Lower Section [i.e., the Hearers] of the Manichaean Religion."

This text includes hymns attributed to Mani and prayers from his earliest followers, such as Mār Zaku, Mār Ammo, and Mār Sīsin. Another Chinese work is a full translation of the Sermon of the Light Nous, presented as a discussion between Mani and his disciple Adda.

Until the 1900s, the only sources about Manichaeism were descriptions and quotes from non-Manichaean writers, including Christians, Muslims, Buddhists, and Zoroastrians. These writers often criticized Manichaeism but also quoted directly from its scriptures. This allowed Isaac de Beausobre, writing in the 18th century, to create a detailed work on Manichaeism using only anti-Manichaean sources. Scholars have long studied Greek and Arabic quotations, Latin writings by Saint Augustine, and the important Syriac quote by Theodore Bar Konai.

Eusebius wrote:

— At the same time, Manes,

Figurative use

The words "Manichaean" and "Manichaeism" are sometimes used as synonyms for the term "dualist," which describes a philosophy or worldview that sees events as a simple struggle between good and evil. These terms are often used to describe ideas that oversimplify complex situations by focusing only on opposing forces of good and evil. For example, Zbigniew Brzezinski used the phrase "Manichaean paranoia" to describe U.S. president George W. Bush's worldview in a 2007 television show. He explained that this phrase referred to the belief that Bush was fighting against a group of nations labeled as the "Axis of Evil." Glenn Greenwald later discussed this idea in his book A Tragic Legacy (2007).

The term is often used by critics to describe the attitudes and foreign policies of the United States and its leaders. Philosopher Frantz Fanon frequently used the idea of Manichaeism to discuss the violence between colonizers and the people they colonized.

In My Secret History, the main character in Paul Theroux's book explains the word "Manichaean" to his son by saying it means "seeing that good and evil are mixed." Before explaining the word, the character mentions Joseph Conrad's short story The Secret Sharer twice. The story also explores the idea of good and evil being connected.