Neoplatonism is a type of philosophy based on the ideas of Plato. It began in the 3rd century AD during a time when many different philosophies and religions were common. The term "Neoplatonism" does not describe a single set of ideas but refers to a group of thinkers who lived during a specific ancient time period. One key idea shared by these thinkers is monism, which is the belief that everything in the universe can be explained by a single source called "the One."
Neoplatonism started with a teacher named Ammonius Saccas and his student Plotinus, who lived from around 205 to 271 AD. It continued until the 6th century. After Plotinus, the history of Neoplatonism is divided into three main periods: the work of his student Porphyry, who lived from the 3rd to early 4th century; the work of Iamblichus, who lived from the 3rd to 4th century; and a time in the 5th and 6th centuries when schools in Alexandria and Athens were active and produced many important works.
Neoplatonism had a long-lasting effect on Western philosophy and religion. During the Middle Ages, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim scholars studied and used Neoplatonic ideas. In the Islamic world, Neoplatonic writings were translated into Arabic and Persian, and important philosophers such as al-Farabi, Solomon ibn Gabirol, Avicenna, and Maimonides included Neoplatonic ideas in their own work.
A Christian philosopher named Thomas Aquinas had direct access to writings by thinkers like Proclus, Simplicius of Cilicia, and Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite. He also learned about other Neoplatonists, such as Plotinus and Porphyry, from other sources. A German mystic named Meister Eckhart was influenced by Neoplatonism and promoted a way of life focused on deep spiritual reflection to understand a higher form of God. Neoplatonism also greatly influenced Renaissance thinkers like Marsilio Ficino and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, and its ideas continue to appear in 19th-century Universalism and modern spiritual practices.
Origins of the term
Neoplatonism is a term used today. It serves two purposes in history. First, it separates the ideas of Plotinus and those who followed him from the ideas of the ancient philosopher Plato. Second, it suggests that Plotinus's way of understanding Plato was very different from earlier interpretations. For about six centuries after Plato's time, people had continuously interpreted Plato's work, starting with Aristotle and the students of Plato's Academy. This tradition continued through a period now called middle Platonism. The term Neoplatonism implies that Plotinus's interpretation of Plato was so different from earlier ones that it began a new era in the history of Plato's philosophy. However, some modern scholars question whether Neoplatonism is a helpful label, arguing that Plotinus's ideas were not much different from those of his immediate predecessors. As a student of the philosopher Ammonius Saccas, Plotinus used his teacher's knowledge and earlier teachings to guide future generations.
Whether Neoplatonism is a meaningful or useful way to describe history is a key question in the study of how Plato's ideas have been interpreted. For much of the history of Platonism, it was widely believed that Neoplatonists followed Plato's teachings closely. For example, the Renaissance thinker Marsilio Ficino believed that the Neoplatonic interpretation of Plato accurately reflected Plato's philosophy. It is unclear exactly when scholars began to see differences between Plato's original ideas and those of his Neoplatonic followers, but this distinction became clear at least by the early 1800s. Some modern scholars credit the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher with being one of the first to separate Plato's philosophy from that of his Neoplatonic interpreters. Others argue that this separation was the result of a long historical process that happened before Schleiermacher's work on Plato.
Origins and history of classical Neoplatonism
Neoplatonism began with Plotinus in the 3rd century AD. After Plotinus, classical Neoplatonism developed through three main stages: the work of his student Porphyry; the teachings of Iamblichus and his followers in Syria; and the time in the 5th and 6th centuries when the Academies in Alexandria and Athens became centers of learning.
Neoplatonism combined ideas from Greek philosophy, Jewish thought, and other traditions. Important influences included the Middle Platonists, such as Plutarch, and the Neopythagoreans, like Numenius of Apamea. Philo, a Jewish scholar who lived in the Roman world, translated Jewish beliefs using ideas from Stoicism, Platonism, and Neopythagoreanism. He believed God is "supra-rational," meaning beyond human understanding, and that people can reach God only through a state of spiritual connection called "ecstasy." Philo also believed that divine messages, or oracles, provide knowledge about morality and religion. Early Christian thinkers like Justin Martyr and Athenagoras of Athens tried to link Christianity with Platonism, while Christian Gnostics in Alexandria, such as Valentinus and followers of Basilides, also shared some ideas with Neoplatonism.
Ammonius Saccas, who died around 240–245 AD, was Plotinus’s teacher. Ammonius may have been influenced by Indian philosophy, which has led some scholars to suggest that Indian ideas affected Neoplatonism. Porphyry, in his work On the One School of Plato and Aristotle, wrote that Ammonius believed the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle were in agreement.
Both Christians and pagans claimed Ammonius as a teacher and said he supported their beliefs. Christians like Eusebius and Jerome believed Ammonius was a Christian until his death, while pagans like Porphyry and Plotinus claimed he left Christianity and became a pagan philosopher.
Plotinus, who lived from about 205 to 270 AD, is considered the founder of Neoplatonism. Most of what we know about him comes from Porphyry’s introduction to his writings, called the Enneads. Plotinus was influenced by Greek, Persian, Indian, and Egyptian ideas. His writings later inspired many philosophers and mystics, including Pagans, Jews, Christians, Gnostics, and Muslims.
Plotinus taught that there is a supreme, completely transcendent "One" that is not divided, not multiple, and not different in any way. This One is beyond all categories of being and non-being. The idea of "being" comes from human experiences, but the infinite One is beyond all such experiences and cannot be described by human language. The One is not a physical object and is not simply the sum of all things. It exists before all things.
Porphyry, who lived from about 233 to 309 AD, wrote about astrology, religion, philosophy, and music. He wrote a biography of Plotinus and created a commentary on Euclid’s Elements, which later scholars like Pappus used. Porphyry opposed Christianity and defended pagan beliefs. His work Against the Christians is mostly lost, but he once said, "The gods have proclaimed Christ to have been most pious, but the Christians are a confused and vicious sect."
Iamblichus, who lived from about 245 to 325 AD, shaped later Neoplatonic ideas. He is best known for writing The Life of Pythagoras and De Mysteriis. In his system, divine beings exist from the One down to the physical world. Souls, according to Iamblichus, enter the material world and become human. The world is filled with supernatural beings who influence nature and share knowledge of the future. These beings can be reached through prayers and offerings. Iamblichus believed the goal of life was to achieve unity with the divine, a process called henosis. This was done through rituals called theurgy, or "divine-working."
After Plotinus and Porphyry, Aristotle’s writings (excluding those about biology) were added to the study of Platonic philosophy. Porphyry’s introduction to Aristotle’s Categories, called the Isagoge, helped introduce logic to students. Studying Aristotle became a way to understand Plato in later Platonism. Some Neoplatonic works were falsely attributed to Plato or Aristotle. For example, the text De Mundo is thought to be written by a "pseudo-Aristotle," though this is still debated.
Hypatia, who lived from about 360 to 415 AD, was a Greek philosopher and mathematician who led the Platonist school in Alexandria, Egypt. She taught philosophy, mathematics, and astronomy. She was killed by a violent mob of Coptic monks during a conflict between the prefect of Egypt, Orestes, and Cyril, the archbishop of Alexandria. Scholars still debate whether Cyril was directly involved in her death.
Proclus Lycaeus, who lived from 412 to 485 AD, was a Greek Neoplatonist and one of the last major Greek philosophers. He created one of the most detailed Neoplatonic systems. He also developed a way to interpret Plato’s dialogues allegorically. A key part of his system was the idea of "henads," which are individual divine beings placed between the One and the divine Intellect. Henads are beyond being, like the One, but they help organize the universe by starting chains of causation. Each henad is linked to a Greek god, such as Apollo or Helios, and represents the qualities of that god. Henads connect the absolute unity of the One with the diversity of the physical world. During the Middle Ages, many of Plotinus’s ideas were mistakenly attributed to Proclus.
Ideas
The Enneads of Plotinus are the main and most important writing about Neoplatonism. This spiritual and philosophical work includes both theoretical and practical parts. The theoretical sections explain the origin of the human soul and how it has moved away from its original state. The practical parts describe how the soul can return to the Eternal and Supreme. The system of Neoplatonism divides reality into two parts: the invisible world and the physical world. The invisible world includes the transcendent, absolute One, from which an eternal, perfect essence called Nous (or intellect) comes. This essence then creates the world-soul.
For Plotinus, the first and most important idea in reality is "the One." The One is simple, unexplainable, and exists beyond being and non-being. It is the source of the universe and the final goal of everything that exists. While the One cannot be given a name, the best terms to describe it are "the One" or "the Good." The One is so simple that it cannot even be said to exist or be a being. Instead, it is the creative force behind everything, a concept inspired by Plato’s Republic, where he compared the Good to something beyond existence. In Plotinus’ view, the One causes the rest of reality, which includes two levels: Nous and the Soul (psyché). Although later Neoplatonists followed Plotinus’ general ideas, they also made changes to his teachings on important topics like the nature of evil.
From the One, different levels of reality called "hypostases" emerge. The highest level is the One itself, from which Nous, or the mind, comes. Nous is the first level after the One and holds all knowledge in a unified way. It is the knower, the known, and the act of knowing, all combined into one. The Platonic world of Forms is part of Nous and serves as the model for the physical world. From Nous, the next level is the Soul, which receives ideas from Nous and brings them into reality. This process of "actualization" is how the physical world is created, which includes many things, time, and space. The physical world is an imperfect copy of the Nous and the world of Forms. The process of Emanation is not connected to time, as time only exists in the physical world, not in the One, Nous, or the Soul. Even though these levels are different, they all belong to the same unified reality that comes from the One.
The original Being, the One, creates or sends out the Nous, which is a perfect image of the One and the model for all things. The Nous is both being and thought, an idea and the ideal world. As an image, the Nous perfectly matches the One, but as a creation, it is different. Plotinus saw the Nous as the highest level of reality that humans can understand, and it is pure intellect. The Nous is the most important part of idealism, and Neoplatonism is a form of idealism. The Nous, or demiurge, is the force that shapes the material world into something we can perceive.
The Nous creates the world-soul, which is also immaterial. The world-soul’s relationship to the Nous is similar to the Nous’ relationship to the One. It exists between the Nous and the physical world, being influenced by the Nous but also connected to the physical world. The Nous is indivisible, but the world-soul can stay united with the Nous while also interacting with the physical world. This makes the world-soul an intermediate level. The world-soul belongs to the intelligible world but also includes many individual souls. These souls can either be guided by the Nous or turn away from it, choosing the physical world and losing themselves in the senses and the finite.
The soul, as a moving force, creates the physical or material world. This world should be filled with the soul so that its parts remain in harmony. Plotinus did not believe in dualism, like some groups such as the Gnostics, who thought the material world was bad. Instead, he saw the world as beautiful and full of splendor. As long as the soul guides the body, the world is good and orderly. It is like a shadow of the higher world, and the differences between good and bad in the physical world are important for the balance of the whole. However, in the actual physical world, harmony is replaced by conflict and change, leading to an unstable existence. This happens because the physical world is based on matter, which has no qualities of its own. Matter is neutral when it can take form but becomes evil when it lacks form. Here, evil is not a real thing but the absence of good, like how darkness is the absence of light.
Later Neoplatonists, such as Iamblichus, added many more beings, like gods, angels, and demons, to act as links between the One and humans. These Neoplatonist gods are perfect and do not act in morally bad ways, unlike their portrayals in myths.
Neoplatonists did not believe evil existed on its own. They compared it to darkness, which only exists because there is no light. Similarly, evil is simply the absence of good. Things are good as long as they exist; they are evil only when they lack something good they should have.
Neoplatonists believed humans could achieve perfection and happiness in this life, not just in an afterlife. They saw perfection and happiness as the same and thought they could be reached through deep philosophical thinking.
All souls return to the One, from which they originally came.
Neoplatonists believed souls existed before birth and would live forever. The human soul has two parts: a lower, irrational part and a higher, rational part (the mind), both of which are parts of the same soul. It was widely believed that the soul has a "vehicle" that allows it to return to the One after death. After death, the soul moves to a place in the afterlife that matches the level of life it lived. Neoplatonists also believed in reincarnation. Pure souls might go to the highest places, while impure souls would be purified before being reborn into a new body, possibly even an animal. Plotinus thought souls could be reborn into humans or animals, but Porphyry believed only humans could
Influence
Augustine of Hippo, a Christian theologian, was influenced by Neoplatonism as he moved from the belief system of Manichaeism to Christianity. As a Manichaean, Augustine believed that evil had real existence and that God was made of matter. After becoming a Neoplatonist, he changed his views, believing that evil is a lack of good and that God is not made of matter. Even after becoming a Christian, Augustine's ideas still showed the influence of Neoplatonism in his writings, such as his treatise On True Religion, written years after his baptism in AD 387.
The term logos had different meanings in Neoplatonism. Plotinus linked it to Thales, describing it as a principle connecting the aspects of Soul, Spirit (nous), and the One. St. John connected logos to Christ, while Paul called it "Son," "Image," and "Form." Victorinus later explained that logos inside God was different from logos related to the world through creation and salvation. For Augustine, logos became flesh in Christ, who carried logos more fully than any other person. Augustine greatly influenced early medieval Christian philosophy.
Some early Christians, influenced by Neoplatonism, equated the Neoplatonic One (or God) with the Christian God. Origen, a student of Ammonius Saccas, and Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, whose works were translated by John Scotus, had lasting effects on both Eastern and Western Christianity. Their ideas shaped mystical practices and theology, though Origen was later declared a heretic at the Fifth Ecumenical Council.
Neoplatonism opposed Gnosticism, which Plotinus criticized in his Enneads. He rejected Gnosticism’s negative view of Plato’s demiurge, the creator of the material world, as described in Plato’s Timaeus. Scholars like John D. Turner called Neoplatonism "orthodox Platonic philosophy," partly because Plotinus corrected misinterpretations of Plato’s ideas. Plotinus argued that Gnostics corrupted Plato’s teachings, unlike Valentinus, who claimed the Spirit of Christ was created by a conscious god after a fall from the Pleroma. Plotinus believed the One was not a conscious god but a principle of totality and the source of ultimate wisdom.
After the Platonic Academy was destroyed in the first century BC, philosophers continued teaching Platonism. A new academy was founded in Athens in the early 5th century by Neoplatonists, but it closed in AD 529 due to its pagan professors. Other schools in Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, and Gaza continued Neoplatonic studies.
After the academy closed, Neoplatonic and secular philosophy continued in Alexandria and Gaza. In the early 7th century, Stephanus of Alexandria brought Neoplatonic ideas to Constantinople, where they remained part of secular education. The university preserved Platonic and Aristotelian traditions, with the Platonic school lasting nearly two thousand years until the 15th century.
Michael Psellos, a Byzantine monk and philosopher, wrote many treatises, including De omnifaria doctrina, during his time in Constantinople. Gemistos Plethon, a leading Neoplatonist in the late Byzantine Empire, shared his ideas during the failed effort to reconcile the East–West Schism at the Council of Florence. He influenced Cosimo de’ Medici, who founded a new Platonic Academy in Florence, led by Marsilio Ficino, who translated Plato’s works and Neoplatonic texts into Latin.
Islamic scholars, such as Avicenna, Ibn Arabi, al-Kindi, al-Farabi, and al-Himsi, adapted Neoplatonism to fit Islamic monotheism. They used Neoplatonic ideas about the One and the First Principle, linking them to God as a transcendent, omnipresent, and unchanging being. Islamic philosophers combined these ideas with Islamic mysticism.
In the Middle Ages, Jewish thinkers like Isaac the Blind, Azriel of Gerona, Nachmanides, and Solomon ibn Gabirol adapted Neoplatonism to their own monotheistic beliefs. The works of Pseudo-Dionysius influenced Western medieval mysticism, especially Meister Eckhart. Neoplatonism also shaped Latin scholasticism, as seen in Eriugena’s translations and Aquinas’s use of Neoplatonic ideas within an Aristotelian framework.
Neoplatonism survived in Eastern Christianity and was reintroduced to the West by Gemistos Plethon, who opposed the Byzantine Church’s reliance on Aristotelian methods. His revival of Plato’s ideas after the Council of Florence (1438–1439) helped spark renewed interest in Platonic philosophy during the Renaissance.
In Renaissance Italy, Neoplatonism was a revival of Plato’s ideas, based on Plotinus’s synthesis of Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoras, and other Greek philosophers. The Renaissance marked a revival of classical learning, centered on these philosophical traditions.