The Roanoke Colony was the location of two attempts by Sir Walter Raleigh to create the first permanent English settlement in North America. The first colony was built on Roanoke Island in 1585 as a military base. It was left in 1586 because of problems. The more well-known second colony, called the Lost Colony, began in 1587 when a new group of settlers led by John White arrived on the island. When a ship returned in 1590, the colony was gone. The fate of the 112 to 121 people who lived there is still unknown.
The Roanoke Colony was started in 1585 by Governor Ralph Lane on Roanoke Island, which is now in Dare County, North Carolina. Problems with local Native American tribes and a lack of supplies made life difficult for Lane’s group. A mission to bring supplies led by Sir Richard Grenville was delayed, so Lane left the colony and returned to England with Sir Francis Drake in 1586. Grenville arrived later but also went home, leaving a small group to protect the area. A second group led by John White arrived in 1587. Sir Walter Raleigh had sent him to build a settlement called the "Cittie of Raleigh" on the Chesapeake Bay.
While checking on Grenville’s group, a ship pilot named Simon Fernandes made White and his settlers stay on Roanoke. White went back to England with Fernandes to get more supplies, planning to return in 1588. The Anglo-Spanish War delayed his return until 1590. When he arrived, he found the settlement strengthened but empty. The word "CROATOAN" was carved into the wooden fence, which White thought meant the colonists had moved to Croatoan Island. Before he could follow this clue, rough seas and a lost anchor made the mission return to England. This attempt became known as the "Lost Colony."
Some people guessed the colonists had joined nearby Native American tribes as early as 1605. Later, explorers from Jamestown reported that the Roanoke settlers might have been killed. There were also stories about people with European features in Native American villages, but no proof was found. Interest in the mystery faded until 1834, when George Bancroft wrote about it in A History of the United States. Bancroft described the colonists as important figures in American history, especially White’s granddaughter Virginia Dare, which made people curious about their story.
Background
In 1524, the Outer Banks were explored by Giovanni da Verrazzano. He believed Pamlico Sound was the Pacific Ocean and thought the barrier islands formed a land bridge. He shared his findings with King Francis I of France and King Henry VIII of England, but neither king acted on his report.
In 1578, Queen Elizabeth I gave Sir Humphrey Gilbert a charter to explore and settle lands not claimed by Christian kingdoms. Gilbert had helped end a rebellion in Ireland earlier in the 1570s. The charter’s terms were unclear, but Gilbert believed it allowed him to claim all lands in the New World north of Spanish Florida. In 1583, Gilbert led an English claim on St. John’s, Newfoundland, making it the first English territory in North America under Queen Elizabeth’s authority. However, Gilbert died at sea during his return journey to England.
After Gilbert’s death in 1583, Queen Elizabeth divided his charter between his brother Adrian Gilbert and his half-brother Sir Walter Raleigh. Adrian’s portion included Newfoundland and lands north of it, where maps suggested a possible route to Asia. Raleigh received lands farther south, though much of that area was already claimed by Spain. At the same time, Richard Hakluyt had noticed Verrazzano’s description of a land bridge within Raleigh’s territory and encouraged England to use this opportunity.
Raleigh’s charter, issued on March 25, 1584, required him to establish a colony by 1591 or lose his right to settle. He was tasked with discovering and claiming lands inhabited by non-Christian people. It was expected that Raleigh would create a base to launch attacks on Spanish treasure ships. Despite his wide powers, Raleigh was not allowed to leave Queen Elizabeth’s side. Instead, he sent associates to lead expeditions to the Americas while managing operations from London.
Amadas–Barlowe expedition
Raleigh promptly organized an expedition to investigate his claim. The journey left England on April 27, 1584. The fleet included two ships; Philip Amadas was the captain of the larger one, with Simon Fernandes as the pilot, while Arthur Barlowe led the second ship. Some evidence suggests Thomas Harriot and John White may have joined the voyage, but no surviving records directly confirm their participation.
The expedition followed a common route for trips across the Atlantic Ocean. The ships sailed south to follow trade winds, which helped them move westward toward the West Indies, where they gathered fresh water. The two vessels then traveled north until July 4, when they spotted land now known as Cape Fear. On July 13, the fleet landed at an inlet north of Hatorask Island, which was named "Port Ferdinando" in honor of Fernandes, who discovered it.
Native Americans in the area may have previously seen Europeans from earlier expeditions. The Secotan, who controlled Roanoke Island and the mainland between Albemarle Sound and the Pamlico River, soon met the English and formed friendly relations. Wingina, the Secotan chieftain, had recently been injured in a conflict with the Pamlico, so his brother, Granganimeo, represented the tribe instead.
After returning to England in the fall of 1584, Amadas and Barlowe praised the tribes' hospitality and the advantageous location of Roanoke. They brought back two Native Americans: Wanchese, a Secotan, and Manteo, a Croatan whose mother was the chieftain of Croatoan Island. The expedition's reports described the region as a pleasant and abundant land, comparing it to the Golden Age and the Garden of Eden, though these descriptions may have been exaggerated by Raleigh.
Queen Elizabeth was pleased with the results of Raleigh's expedition. In 1585, during a ceremony where Raleigh was knighted, she named the land granted to him "Virginia" and declared him "Knight Lord and Governor of Virginia." Sir Walter Raleigh then worked to find investors to support the establishment of a colony.
Lane colony
For the first colony in Virginia, Raleigh planned a military mission focused on exploring and studying natural resources. The original plan was to send 69 colonists, but about 600 men traveled on the voyage, with half expected to stay at the colony and the rest to return later. Ralph Lane was chosen as the governor, and Philip Amadas was named admiral, though Sir Richard Grenville led the mission. Civilian workers included Joachim Gans, a metallurgist; Thomas Harriot, a scientist; and John White, an artist. Manteo and Wanchese, who had visited England, also joined the voyage.
The fleet had seven ships: the galleass Tiger (Grenville's flagship, with Fernandes as pilot), the flyboat Roebuck (led by John Clarke), the Red Lion (under George Raymond), the Elizabeth (captained by Thomas Cavendish), the Dorothy (possibly captained by Arthur Barlowe), and two small pinnaces.
On April 9, 1585, the fleet left Plymouth, sailing south through the Bay of Biscay. A severe storm near Portugal caused the Tiger to separate from the rest of the fleet and sank one pinnace. Fernandes planned for this, directing the ships to meet at Mosquetal, on Puerto Rico’s southern coast. Tiger traveled alone to the Caribbean, arriving at Mosquetal on May 11 before the other ships.
While waiting for the fleet, Grenville built a base camp for his crew to rest and protect against Spanish forces. Lane’s men practiced building fortifications for the future colony. The crew also repaired the lost pinnace by making nails and cutting local wood. The Elizabeth arrived on May 19, shortly after the fort and pinnace were completed.
The rest of the fleet never reached Mosquetal. At least one ship had trouble near Jamaica and ran out of supplies, forcing its captain to leave 20 men ashore. Eventually, Roebuck, Red Lion, and Dorothy reached the Outer Banks by mid-June. Red Lion left 30 men on Croatoan Island and departed for privateering in Newfoundland. Grenville tried to get supplies from Spanish authorities but gave up when they failed to deliver. He suspected an attack and abandoned the temporary fort.
Grenville captured two Spanish ships in the Mona Passage, adding them to his fleet. Lane used one of these ships to take salt from Salinas Bay, where Spanish salt mounds were stored. Lane built fortifications to protect his men as they collected the salt. Grenville’s ships then traveled to La Isabela, where the Spanish traded with the English. On June 7, Grenville left Hispaniola for the Outer Banks.
The fleet entered an inlet at Wococon Island (near present-day Ocracoke Inlet) on June 26. The Tiger struck a shoal, damaging most of the food supplies and nearly sinking the ship. The wreck of the Tiger made it impossible to spend the winter at the colony as planned. The remaining supplies could not support a large settlement, and the shallow inlets of the Outer Banks made the area unsuitable for large ships. The colony’s main goal now became finding a better harbor.
After repairs, the Tiger joined the rest of the fleet at Port Ferdinando, where they reunited with Roebuck and Dorothy. Men left behind by Red Lion were likely found during this time. On August 5, John Arundell took command of a faster ship and sailed to England to report the expedition’s success.
The loss of supplies from the Tiger meant the colony would have far fewer settlers than planned. Grenville decided only about 100 men would stay with Lane, enough to complete the colony’s goals until a second wave of colonists and supplies arrived in June 1585. However, this expedition had been redirected to Newfoundland to warn fishing fleets about Spanish attacks on English ships. Until resupply, Lane’s colony relied heavily on the help of Native Americans.
While the Tiger was being repaired, Grenville explored Pamlico Sound and the Secotan villages of Aquascogoc, Pamlico, and Secotan. His party met locals, giving Harriot and White a chance to study Native American society. Much of their research was lost during the 1586 evacuation, but Harriot’s survey of Virginia’s people and resources was published in 1588, with White’s illustrations added in 1590.
After this, a silver cup was reported missing. Grenville sent Amadas to Aquascogoc to demand its return. When the villagers did not produce the cup, the English burned the town and its crops, forcing the natives to flee.
Manteo arranged a meeting between Grenville, Lane, and Granganimeo to provide land for the English settlement on Roanoke Island. Both sides agreed the island was a good location for access to the ocean and to avoid Spanish patrols. Lane began building a fort on the island’s north side. No drawings of the Roanoke fort remain, but it likely resembled the one at Mosquetal.
Grenville sailed for England on the Tiger on August 25, 1585. Days later, in Bermuda, he attacked the Spanish galleon Santa Maria de San Vicente, which had been separated from its fleet. The ship, taken back to England as a prize, carried enough treasure to make the Roanoke expedition profitable, exciting Queen Elizabeth’s court about Raleigh’s colonization efforts.
The Roebuck left Roanoke on September 8, 1585, leaving one pinnace under Amadas’ command. Records show 107 men remained with Lane at the colony. Historians disagree about whether White returned to England with Grenville or stayed at Roanoke during the winter.
Many colonists had joined the mission hoping to find gold and silver. When these resources were not found, they became discouraged and believed the effort was pointless. The English also studied where Native Americans obtained copper but never found its source. The colonists gathered corn from nearby villages
Lost colony
After the Lane colony was abandoned, Raleigh decided to try again. Hakluyt, Harriot, and White encouraged him to do so. However, Roanoke Island was no longer safe for English settlers because of conflicts between Lane's men and the Secotan tribe, and the death of Wingina. Hakluyt suggested Chesapeake Bay as a new location for a colony, believing the Pacific coast might be nearby. On January 7, 1587, Raleigh approved an official document to establish "the Cittie of Raleigh," with White as governor and twelve assistants. About 115 people agreed to join, including White's pregnant daughter Eleanor and her husband Ananias Dare. Most of the colonists were middle-class Londoners who hoped to become wealthy landowners. Manteo and Towaye, who had left the Lane colony with Drake's fleet, also joined. This time, the group included women and children, but no soldiers.
The expedition had three ships: the flagship Lion, led by White with Fernandes as pilot, a smaller boat called a flyboat commanded by Edward Spicer, and a full-rigged pinnace led by Edward Stafford. The fleet left on May 8.
On July 22, the Lion and the pinnace arrived at Croatoan Island. White planned to take forty men to Roanoke to meet Grenville's fifteen men before heading to Chesapeake Bay. However, a "gentleman" on the Lion told the sailors to leave the colonists at Roanoke instead.
The next morning, White's group found the old Lane colony site. The fort had been destroyed, and the houses were empty and overgrown with melons. There were no signs of Grenville's men, only human bones White thought were from someone killed by Native Americans.
After the flyboat arrived on July 25, all colonists landed. Soon after, George Howe was killed by a Native American while searching for crabs in Albemarle Sound. White sent Stafford to talk with the Croatan tribe, with help from Manteo. The Croatan explained that a group of mainland tribes, led by Wanchese, had attacked Grenville's men. The colonists tried to negotiate peace but got no response. On August 9, White led an attack on Dasamongueponke, but the enemy had already left the village, and the English accidentally attacked Croatan looters. Manteo helped repair relations between the colonists and the Croatan. For his help, Manteo was baptized and given the title "Lord of Roanoke and Dasamongueponke."
On August 18, 1587, Eleanor Dare gave birth to a daughter, named "Virginia" to honor being the first Christian born in Virginia. Records show Margery Harvye also gave birth around the same time, but nothing else is known about her child.
By the time the fleet prepared to return to England, the colonists decided to move 50 miles up Albemarle Sound. They convinced Governor White to return to England to explain their situation and ask for help. White reluctantly agreed and left with the fleet on August 27, 1587.
After a difficult journey, White arrived in England on November 5, 1587. By then, news had reached London about the Spanish Armada preparing to attack, and Queen Elizabeth ordered all ships to stay in England to fight the Armada.
During the winter, Grenville was allowed to lead a fleet to attack Spanish ships in the Caribbean, with White joining him on a resupply ship. The fleet was set to leave in March 1588, but bad weather delayed them. Grenville later received new orders to defend England. Two smaller ships, the Brave and the Roe, were not fit for battle, so White took them to Roanoke. The ships left on April 22, but the captains tried to capture Spanish ships for profit. On May 6, they were attacked by French pirates near Morocco. Many crew members died, and supplies for Roanoke were stolen, forcing the ships to return to England.
After the Spanish Armada was defeated in August 1588, England kept a shipping ban to prepare for another attack on Spain in 1589. White would not be allowed to resupply Roanoke until 1590.
The Spanish Empire had been watching the Roanoke colonies since 1585. They feared the English had created a base for pirates in North America but could not find it. They did not know Lane's colony had been abandoned or that White's colony was in a different location. The Spanish believed the English had found a diamond mountain and a route to the Pacific.
In 1588, Philip II of Spain ordered Vicente González to search Chesapeake Bay. González found nothing there but discovered an abandoned port called Port Ferdinando on the Outer Banks. He left without investigating further. Although the Spanish thought González had found the English base, the defeat of the Armada delayed any attack. In 1590, a plan to destroy Roanoke and build a Spanish colony in Chesapeake Bay was rumored, but it was false information meant to trick the English.
Eventually, Raleigh arranged for White to join a privateering expedition led by John Watts. The fleet of six ships would raid Spanish outposts in the Caribbean, but the Hopewell and Moonlight would take White to Roanoke. At the same time, Raleigh was transferring the venture to new investors.
The Hopewell and Moonlight arrived at Croatoan Island on August 12, 1590, but White did not contact the Croatan for information. On August 15, the crew saw smoke on Roanoke Island. The next day, they saw more smoke on Croatoan but found nothing. White's group struggled to cross Pamlico Sound, losing lives. On August 17, they saw fire on Roanoke but arrived after dark and decided not to land. They spent the night singing English songs, hoping the colonists would hear.
On August 18, White and his group landed on Roanoke Island (his granddaughter's third birthday). They found fresh footprints in the sand but no one to meet them. They also saw the letters "CRO" carved into a tree. At the colony site, they found a wooden fence with the word "CROATOAN" carved into a post. White believed this meant the colonists had moved to Croatoan Island, as they had agreed in 158
Investigations into Roanoke
Although White did not find the colonists in 1590, his report suggested they might have moved to another place and could still be alive. However, Raleigh wanted to keep the situation unclear so he could legally keep his claim on Virginia. In 1594, a request was made to declare Ananias Dare legally dead so his son, John Dare, could inherit his property. This request was approved in 1597.
During Raleigh's first voyage to the Americas in 1595, he claimed he was searching for the lost colonists. Later, he admitted this was a lie to hide his real goal of finding El Dorado, a mythical place. On the way back, he sailed near the Outer Banks and later said bad weather stopped him from landing.
Raleigh later tried to keep his control over Virginia, which was based on the possibility that the Roanoke colonists were still alive. This was important because the price of sassafras, a valuable plant, had risen greatly. In 1602, he funded a mission to the Outer Banks led by Samuel Mace. This trip was different because Raleigh paid for the ship and promised the sailors their wages, so they would not be distracted by other activities. However, records show that Raleigh’s main goal was to collect sassafras far south of Croatoan Island. Bad weather forced the group to leave the area near Hatteras. In 1603, Raleigh was involved in a plot against King James and was arrested for treason, ending his control over Virginia.
In 1603, a final search for the Roanoke colonists was led by Bartholomew Gilbert. Their plan was to go to Chesapeake Bay, but bad weather made them land near there instead. Gilbert and others in the landing group were killed by Native Americans for unknown reasons on July 29. The rest of the crew returned to England without success.
After the Jamestown settlement was established in 1607, John Smith was captured by the Powhatan people. He met with their leader, Wahunsenacawh (called "Chief Powhatan"), and his brother, Opechancanough. They described places where people wore European-style clothing, such as "Ocanahonan" and "Anone." Smith later arranged for Wowinchopunk, the leader of the Paspahegh, to investigate another place called "Panawicke." The colony made a rough map showing these locations, including a place called "Pakrakanick" with a note saying, "Here remaineth four men clothed that came from Roonock to Ocanahawan."
In the summer of 1608, Smith sent a letter and the map to England. The original map is lost, but a copy was sent to Spain by Pedro de Zúñiga, the Spanish ambassador. This copy, now called the "Zúñiga Map," was found again in 1890.
Smith planned to explore Pakrakanick but stopped when he had a disagreement with the Paspahegh. He also sent two groups to search for other villages and to find "the lost company of Sir Walter Rawley." Neither group found any signs of the Roanoke colonists.
By May 1609, it was reported that the 1587 colonists had been killed by Wahunsenacawh. The source of this claim is unknown. Machumps, Wahunsenacawh’s brother-in-law, had recently arrived in England and may have shared information. No proof exists that Smith sent a letter with this information.
Based on this and Smith’s earlier report, the Royal Council for Virginia ordered Jamestown to move to a new location called "Ohonahorn" near the Chowan River. This place was said to be close to copper mines and a village where four of Raleigh’s colonists were held. These orders were delayed because the ship carrying them, the Sea Venture, wrecked at Bermuda. The new governor, Thomas Gates, arrived in May 1610, but the colony was already suffering from a severe crisis. An expedition to the Chowan River was sent, but no results were recorded.
William Strachey arrived in Jamestown with Gates and Machumps in May 1610. By 1612, he returned to England and wrote The Historie of Travaile into Virginia Britannia, describing places like "Peccarecamek" and "Ochanahoen." He also mentioned an attack on the Roanoke colonists, claiming they had lived peacefully with a tribe for 20 years before being killed by Wahunsenacawh’s priests. Strachey suggested that seven survivors fled to the Chowan River and later worked for a chief named "Eyanoco."
Strachey did not name the tribe that hosted the Roanoke colonists but described an attack on the Chesepians. He believed the Powhatan religion was connected to evil forces and suggested England should convert them to Christianity. However, The Historie of Travaile was not published until 1849, and no action was taken against Wahunsenacawh or his priests.
After the Powhatan attacked Jamestown in 1622, English writers began to question the humanity of Native Americans. The London Company promoted propaganda claiming the massacre justified harsh actions to protect investors. In 1625, Samuel Purchas wrote Virginia's Verger, arguing England had the right to claim the land because Native Americans had killed colonists. He cited the 1586 attack on Grenville’s garrison, an alleged attack on White’s colonists, and the 1622 massacre. Purchas claimed Powhatan had confessed to John Smith about the Roanoke massacre, but Smith never wrote about this. Historians like Helen Rountree call Purchas’ claim an anti-Indian argument with no proof.
Scientific research
Research into the disappearance of the 1587 colonists mostly stopped after Lawson's 1701 investigation. Interest in the Lost Colony grew again in the 19th century, leading to many studies by experts.
The ruins Lawson saw in 1701 later became a place for tourists. U.S. President James Monroe visited the site on April 7, 1819. In the 1860s, visitors described the damaged "fort" as little more than a hill-shaped earthwork, with nearby holes dug for valuable items. The 1921 silent film The Lost Colony and road construction harmed the site further. In the 1930s, J. C. Harrington pushed for restoring and protecting the earthwork. The National Park Service took control of the area in 1941, naming it Fort Raleigh National Historic Site. In 1950, the earthwork was rebuilt to match its original size and shape.
In 1998, a team led by climatologist David W. Stahle (University of Arkansas) and archaeologist Dennis B. Blanton (College of William and Mary) found that a severe drought happened in Tidewater between 1587 and 1589. Their study used tree rings from bald cypress trees, covering data from 1185 to 1984. The year 1587 was the worst growing season in the 800-year record. These results matched the Croatan people's concerns about food shortages.
Since 2005, computer scientist Roberta Estes has started groups focused on DNA analysis and genealogy. Her work on the 1587 colony's disappearance led to projects trying to find a genetic link between the colonists and possible Native American descendants. Testing autosomal DNA is not reliable because so little genetic material would remain after five or six generations. However, Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA testing is more reliable over long periods. The biggest challenge is finding a genetic sample to compare, either from a Lost Colonist's remains or a descendant. While it is possible to study DNA from 430-year-old bones, no bones from the Lost Colony have been found. As of 2019, no living descendant had been identified.
Archaeological research
Archaeological research on Roanoke Island began in 1887 when Talcott Williams discovered a Native American burial site. He returned in 1895 to dig at a fort but found no important items. In the 1990s, Ivor Noël Hume made several discoveries, but none could be clearly linked to the 1587 colony, only to the earlier 1585 settlement.
In 1995, after Hurricane Emily uncovered Native American artifacts along Cape Creek in Buxton, North Carolina, anthropologist David Sutton Phelps Jr. led an excavation. In 1998, his team found a ring that seemed to be a gold signet ring with symbols from the Kendall family in the 16th century. This discovery was celebrated, but Phelps never published his findings or tested the ring. In 2017, X-ray analysis showed the ring was actually brass, not gold, and experts could not confirm its connection to the Kendall family. Because the ring had little value and was not well known, it is hard to link it to any specific person from the Roanoke voyages, making it possible the ring arrived later.
A major challenge for archaeologists is that many common items could have come from the 1585 colony or from Native Americans who traded with European settlements. Andrew Lawler suggests that a conclusive find would be female remains (since the 1585 colony had only men) buried in a Christian way (lying on the back, facing east to west) and dated before 1650. However, few human remains have been found at sites tied to the Lost Colony.
One reason for the lack of evidence may be shoreline erosion. Between 1851 and 1970, the northern shore of Roanoke Island lost 928 feet (283 meters). If this trend continued back to the 1580s, parts of the settlements and their artifacts may now be underwater.
In November 2011, researchers at the First Colony Foundation noticed two patches on White’s 1585 map, La Virginea Pars. The British Museum examined the map and found one patch covered a symbol of a fort near the Roanoke and Chowan rivers. A faint outline of a fort, possibly drawn in invisible ink, was also found on the patch. Some believe White may have hidden the fort from the Spanish, who wanted to destroy the colony. The Spanish had tried to find the settlers but failed.
The symbol on the map is not to scale and covers an area in Bertie County, North Carolina, near the 16th-century Weapemeoc village of Mettaquem. In 2012, archaeologists named the excavation site "Site X," meaning "X marks the spot." In 2015, they dug at Site X and found fragments of Tudor pottery and weapons, suggesting a small group of colonists lived there peacefully. However, researchers must prove these items were not brought by the 1585 Lane colony or the 1650s trading post by Nathaniel Batts. In 2019, the Foundation planned to expand research into Salmon Creek State Natural Area.
In 2020, new artifacts were found about 50 miles west of Roanoke Island. Researchers believe these may belong to survivors of the Lost Colony. Analysis focused on whether the items were from the Lost Colony, as later settlers like those from Jamestown had different items, such as clay pipes. Another researcher found items about 50 miles south of Roanoke Island.
In 2020, Mark Horton, an archaeologist from the University of Bristol, found European artifacts, including parts of a sword and gun, at a Native American village on Hatteras Island. This may show the settlers lived with local Native Americans.
In 2020, Scott Dawson published a book titled The Lost Colony and Hatteras Island, describing his work with Horton. He also wrote articles, including one in American Heritage magazine, about European-made items like an olive jar, glass, and other objects.
In 2025, Dawson and Horton announced finding hammerscale—tiny metal flakes from forging iron—at a site on Hatteras Island. They dated the layer to the late 16th century and argued that since hammerscale is a waste product and Native Americans did not forge iron, this proves settlers were there. However, skeptics note the absence of a hearth and suggest the hammerscale may have come from other processes. The findings have not yet been reviewed by other experts.
Hypotheses about the colony's disappearance
Without clear proof of where the Lost Colony went or what happened to them, people have guessed about their fate since the 1590s. This topic has become known among scholars for drawing strong interest and dramatic stories, but it has not always helped serious research.
Guesses about the Lost Colonists usually start with what is known. When John White returned to the colony in 1590, there were no signs of a battle or people leaving in a hurry, but the area had been made stronger. No human remains or graves were found, which suggests that the people had left without dying. The message "CROATOAN" left behind matches an agreement White had made to show where to look for them, meaning they likely wanted White to find them.
David Beers Quinn believed the 1587 colonists tried to move to their original plan, Chesapeake Bay, using a small boat and other small boats to carry their belongings. A small group may have stayed at Croatoan to wait for White and guide him to the new group. After White failed to find them, the main group may have joined the Chesepian people, while those at Croatoan may have joined the Croatan tribe.
Quinn thought Samuel Mace’s 1602 trip might have taken people from the Powhatan tribe to England. These people could have told Thomas Harriot that Europeans lived in the area. Quinn believed events like this might explain why people thought the colonists survived after 1603.
Although Strachey wrote that Wahunsenacawh killed the colonists and Chesepians in different parts of his story, Quinn thought this happened in one attack on a group living together in April 1607. He suggested Wahunsenacawh might have wanted revenge for Mace’s kidnappings. Quinn believed John Smith learned about the attack but did not write about it publicly because of political reasons. Many scholars were unsure about Quinn’s theory, which relied heavily on Strachey’s and Purchas’s accounts.
Since at least 1605, people have guessed that the missing colonists might have joined nearby Native American tribes. If this happened, the colonists would have used up their European supplies and slowly stopped using European ways, like clothing or language, as they adapted to Native American life. Europeans noticed that people taken by Native Americans often did not want to return to Europe, but the opposite rarely happened. This makes it likely that if the colonists joined a tribe, they or their descendants would not have tried to return to European settlers.
This leaves the question of which tribe the colonists joined. It is widely believed that the Croatan were ancestors of the 18th-century Hatteras people, though this is not certain. The Lumbee tribe today claims to be descendants of both the Croatan and the Lost Colonists through the Hatteras.
Some 17th-century maps used the word "Croatoan" to describe places on the mainland near Roanoke and Hatteras. By 1700, these areas were connected to the Machapunga tribe. Stories about the Croatan moving across the mainland are common in eastern North Carolina. For example, the "Legend of the Coharie" in Sampson County was written down by Ernest M. Bullard in 1950.
In the 1880s, a state legislator named Hamilton McMillan claimed that the Native American community in Robeson County (then called free people of color) had names and language from the 1587 colonists. His work led the North Carolina legislature to recognize the group as the "Croatan" tribe in 1885. The tribe later changed its name to Lumbee in 1956.
Other tribes linked to the Roanoke colonists include the Catawba and the Coree. S. A'C. Ashe thought the colonists moved west to the Chowan River in Bertie County, and Conway Whittle Sams believed they scattered to places like the Chowan River and the Pamlico and Neuse rivers after being attacked.
Stories about people with pale skin and light hair among Native American tribes date back to 1607. These are often linked to the Lost Colonists, but some experts think it might be due to higher rates of albinism among Native Americans than Europeans. Dawson (2020) claimed the colonists joined the Croatan tribe and said, "They were never lost. The mystery is over." However, others, like Alain Outlaw and Nick Luccketti, criticized this idea as lacking evidence. Dawson’s book was not reviewed by experts, leaving the question unanswered despite headlines suggesting a solution.
An archaeological dig by Mark Horton found European items, like part of a sword and gun, at a Native American village on Hatteras Island. This might prove the colonists joined local Native Americans.
The colonists could have tried to return to England using the pinnace, a boat left behind in 1587. If they did, the ship might have been lost at sea, explaining why no ship or colonists were found. It is possible the colony had sailors who could attempt the trip. Ships of the pinnace’s size could make the journey, though they usually traveled with other ships.
The colonists might have avoided the usual route to Europe because of the risk of Spanish attacks. Instead, they might have tried to sail directly to England. This was possible, as seen in 1563 when French settlers at Charlesfort built a boat and returned to Europe. Alternatively, the colonists might have sailed north along the coast to reach English fishing ships in the Gulf of Maine.
The pinnace was too small to carry all the colonists, and a long trip would need more supplies, limiting the number of passengers. The colonists might have built another boat using local wood and parts from the pinnace. Survivors of the 1609 Sea Venture shipwreck later built ships, so it is possible the Lost Colonists could have done the same. With the pinnace and a new boat, most of the group might have made the journey.
In popular culture
Raleigh was criticized in public for not caring enough about the 1587 colony, especially by Sir Francis Bacon. In 1597, Bacon wrote, "It is the most sinful thing in the world to abandon a colony that was once doing well; it brings shame and is responsible for the suffering of many people." A 1605 play called Eastward Hoe includes characters traveling to Virginia, who are told that the lost colonists had married Native Americans, creating "a whole country of English."
Until 1834, most American historians ignored or downplayed the importance of the Roanoke settlements. That year, George Bancroft praised the 1587 colonists in his book A History of the United States. Bancroft highlighted the honor of Walter Raleigh, the betrayal by Simon Fernandes, the danger from the Secotan people, the bravery of the colonists, and the mystery of their disappearance. He was the first since John White to write about Virginia Dare, noting her as the first English child born on what would become U.S. soil and the meaning of her name, which symbolized courage. His account interested the American public. As Andrew Lawler wrote, "The country wanted a more magical origin story than the events of Jamestown or Plymouth… Roanoke had knights, villains, and brave people facing a different culture, which made it perfect for a national myth."
The phrase "The Lost Colony" was first used in 1837 by Eliza Lanesford Cushing in her book Virginia Dare; or, the Lost Colony. Cushing also wrote about Virginia Dare, the granddaughter of John White, being raised by Native Americans after the other colonists were killed, and focused on her adventures as a young woman. In 1840, Cornelia Tuthill wrote a similar story, imagining Virginia wearing the skin of a white doe. In 1861, Mary Mason wrote a story in which Virginia was magically turned into a white doe. This idea was later used in a 1901 poem called The White Doe by Sallie Southall Cotten.
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, stories about the Lost Colony and Virginia Dare became popular at the same time as debates about immigrants, African Americans, and Native Americans. Both the Lost Colony and Virginia Dare were used as symbols of white nationalism. Even when Virginia Dare was mentioned in the 1920s to support women's voting rights, it was to argue that giving white women the vote would protect white dominance. By the 1930s, this racist meaning faded, though the VDARE organization, started in 1999, has been criticized for supporting white supremacist ideas.
Since the 1880s, events celebrating Virginia Dare's birthday have been held on Roanoke Island. To attract tourists, a play called The Lost Colony by Paul Green opened in 1937 and is still performed today. President Franklin D. Roosevelt attended the play on August 18, 1937, which was Virginia Dare's 350th birthday.
The short message "CROATOAN" left by the colonists has been used in fictional stories. In Harlan Ellison's 1975 story Croatoan and Stephen King's 1999 miniseries Storm of the Century, the word takes on a supernatural feel. It also appears in Stephen King's Haven as the name of a villain and in the TV show Supernatural. In the 1994 graphic novel Batman-Spawn: War Devil, "Croatoan" is the name of a powerful demon who tries to destroy Gotham City.
In the 2011 American Horror Story episode "Birth," a fictional story is told about the Lost Colonists dying and their ghosts haunting Native Americans until a tribal leader banished them using the word "Croatoan." This idea is expanded in the sixth season of American Horror Story: Roanoke, which includes fictional TV shows about ghostly colonists. The leader of the ghosts, called "The Butcher," is shown as John White's wife, Thomasin, even though there is no proof she was a colonist.
In the 2015 novel The Last American Vampire, the colonists are victims of a vampire named "Crowley." The message "CRO" was an incomplete attempt to name him.