The Late Bronze Age collapse was a time when many societies in the Mediterranean region fell apart between the late 13th and early 12th centuries BC. This event likely affected much of the Eastern Mediterranean and Near East, including Egypt, Anatolia, the Aegean, eastern Libya, and the Balkans. The collapse happened quickly and violently, causing major changes in culture and a sharp drop in wealth and resources for many Bronze Age civilizations.
The palace-based economies of Mycenaean Greece, the Aegean, and Anatolia, which were common during the Late Bronze Age, fell apart. This led to the rise of small, isolated village cultures known as the Greek Dark Ages, which lasted from around 1100 BC to around 750 BC. These were followed by the better-known Archaic Age. The Hittite Empire, which covered Anatolia and the Levant, also collapsed. Meanwhile, states like the Middle Assyrian Empire in Mesopotamia and the New Kingdom of Egypt survived but in weaker forms. Other groups, such as the Phoenicians, gained more independence and power as Egypt and Assyria’s military influence in West Asia declined.
Many theories about the causes of the Late Bronze Age collapse have been proposed since the 19th century. These often involve the violent destruction of cities and towns, including climate change, volcanic eruptions, droughts, disease, invasions by the Sea Peoples, economic changes due to the rise of ironworking, and shifts in military technology that reduced the use of chariots. After the collapse, gradual improvements in metalworking led to the Iron Age across Europe, Asia, and Africa during the first millennium BC. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, scholars suggested that the collapse may have been smaller in scale and impact than earlier believed.
Scholarship
The German historian Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren first placed the Late Bronze Age collapse around 1200 BC. In a history of Ancient Greece published in 1817, Heeren wrote that the first period of Greek prehistory ended about this time, using a date of 1190 BC for the fall of Troy. In 1826, he linked the end of Egypt’s Nineteenth Dynasty to the same time. Other events dated to the early 1200s BC include invasions by the Sea Peoples, the fall of Mycenaean Greece and the Kassites in Babylonia, the carving of the Merneptah Stele, and the destruction of Ugarit and the Amorite states in the Levant. Other events include the breaking apart of Luwian states in western Anatolia and a time of disorder in Canaan. The decline of these governments disrupted trade and caused a sharp drop in literacy in many areas.
At first, historians thought that in the early part of this period, nearly every city between Pylos and Gaza was violently destroyed, with many abandoned. These included Hattusa, Mycenae, and Ugarit. Robert Drews wrote that, “Between the end of the thirteenth and the start of the twelfth century, almost every major city in the eastern Mediterranean was destroyed, many never to be used again.”
More recent research, however, shows that Drews overestimated the number of destroyed cities and included events that did not occur. According to ancient historian and archaeologist Jesse Millek, Ann Killebrew’s work shows that cities like Jerusalem were important during the Middle Bronze IIB and Iron Age IIC periods (around 1800–1550 and 720–586 BC). However, during the Late Bronze Age and the early Iron Age, places like Jerusalem were small, unimportant, and not protected by walls. Some recent studies suggest that while some collapses may have occurred during this time, they may not have been widespread.
Background
The Late Bronze Age (c. 1550–1200 BC) was a time when advanced civilizations had large trade networks and complex social and political systems. Major societies, such as the Egyptians, Hittites, Mesopotamians, and Mycenaeans, built large structures, developed metalworking skills, and used writing. Trade in materials like copper, wood, pottery, and farm products, along with diplomatic relationships, increased the reliance of these societies on one another. At this time, powerful kingdoms used a system called the palace economy, where wealth was collected by a central government and then distributed as the ruler decided. This system mainly helped the ruling class. However, the close connections between these civilizations, combined with the rigid nature of the palace system, made them vulnerable to problems caused by events happening far away.
Evidence
During the Late Bronze Age, many sites in Anatolia were destroyed, and the region became less controlled by a single government. For much of this time, the Hittite Empire ruled Anatolia, but by 1200 BC, the empire was breaking apart due to problems like famine, disease, and war. The Hittite capital, Hattusa, was burned, though it may have been abandoned at that time. A place called Karaoğlan, near modern-day Ankara, was also burned, and bodies were left without burial. Many Anatolian sites show signs of destruction from this time. Some, like Troy, were rebuilt quickly, while others, such as Kaymakçı, were left empty.
This time also saw people moving to new areas. For example, evidence suggests the Phrygians arrived in Anatolia during this period, possibly through the Bosporus or over the Caucasus Mountains.
At first, the Assyrian Empire had influence in the region, but it gradually left much of Anatolia in the second half of the 11th century BC.
During the rule of Hittite king Tudḫaliya IV (around 1237–1209 BC), the Hittites briefly invaded an island, likely to control copper or stop piracy. His son, Suppiluliuma II, later took control of the island around 1200 BC.
In Cyprus, there is little evidence of destruction around 1200 BC, which marks the end of the Late Cypriot II period. The city of Kition was not destroyed, as shown by rebuilding efforts and no signs of violence. At Enkomi, some buildings had limited burning, but most rooms were undamaged. At Sinda, only ash was found, not clear signs of destruction. The only clear evidence of destruction in Cyprus was at Maa Palaeokastro, though the attackers were unknown.
Several settlements in Cyprus were abandoned around 1200 BC or later, such as Pyla Kokkinokremmos, Toumba tou Skourou, Alassa, and Maroni-Vournes. However, areas like Kition and Paphos grew more prosperous after 1200 BC.
In Greece, destruction was most severe at palaces and fortified places. None of the Mycenaean palaces from the Late Bronze Age survived, except possibly the Cyclopean fortifications on the Acropolis of Athens. Thebes was repeatedly attacked and destroyed by fire between 1300 and 1200 BC. Robert Drews noted that Thebes did not regain importance until the late 12th century BC. At Athens, evidence shows a decline during the Bronze Age Collapse, with changes in living areas and burial sites. Some scholars, like Nancy Demand, suggest environmental issues, such as droughts, may have contributed to the decline.
Up to 90% of small sites in the Peloponnese were abandoned, showing a major population drop. Mycenae was destroyed by an earthquake in 1250 BC and later by fires in 1190 BC. It is unclear if the fires were caused by attacks. Tiryns was also damaged by an earthquake in 1200 BC but likely remained inhabited. Scholars like Guy Middleton argue that physical destruction alone cannot explain the collapse.
Pylos shows signs of violent destruction around 1180 BC, with evidence of fires and preparations for coastal attacks. However, Eric Cline notes that the tablets do not confirm an attack by the Sea Peoples.
The Bronze Age collapse led to the Greek Dark Ages, lasting about 400 years until Archaic Greece began. Cities like Athens remained occupied but had limited trade and a simpler culture.
Evidence of the collapse in Greece includes sites like Knossos, Kydonia, Lefkandi, Menelaion, Mycenae, Nichoria, Pylos, Teichos Dymaion, Thebes, Tiryns, and Iolkos.
Possible causes
Many different ideas have been suggested to explain why the Bronze Age ended. These include changes in weather, invasions by groups like the Sea Peoples, the spread of iron tools, military changes, and problems with political, social, and economic systems. However, no single explanation has been agreed upon. Some people thought earthquakes caused the collapse, but recent research shows earthquakes were not as important as once believed. It is likely that a mix of several factors caused the collapse.
A theory called "general systems collapse," created by Joseph Tainter, suggests that societies fall apart when they become too complex to manage. The Late Bronze Age had very complex political, economic, and social systems that were hard to fix once they broke down. Key weaknesses in the Late Bronze Age, such as overly centralized governments, specialized roles, and unstable political structures, were exposed by events like peasant revolts, soldiers switching sides, and wars between kingdoms. Other pressures on these kingdoms included piracy by the Sea Peoples, which disrupted trade, and problems like drought, failed crops, and famine.
During the Late Bronze Age, weather patterns changed. Midwinter storms moved from the Atlantic to north of the Pyrenees and Alps, causing wetter conditions in Central Europe and drought in the Eastern Mediterranean. Tree cover in the Mediterranean forest decreased during this time. Juniper tree rings in Anatolia show a severe dry period between 1198 and 1196 BC. In the Dead Sea region, water levels dropped more than 50 meters by the end of the second millennium BC. This suggests the area received very little rain. Studies using weather data from 35 locations in Greece, Turkey, and the Middle East show that a long drought, similar to one that started in 1972 AD, likely affected the Late Bronze Age.
Some scientists argue that the changes at the end of the Bronze Age were not a sudden event but a slow shift in climate. This gradual change would have placed stress on societies over many years, not just one year. There was no single event that caused the collapse, "nor one straw that broke the camel’s back."
Evidence from the environment shows climate change was one factor, but not the only cause. In 2016, Knapp and Manning concluded that climate became cooler, drier, and more unstable between the 13th and 10th centuries BC, but no one event caused the collapse. A 2012 study found a rapid drop of 3–4 degrees Celsius in the Mediterranean and Middle East during the collapse, based on sea temperatures and plankton changes. Northern Hemisphere temperatures rose quickly and then fell sharply, reaching their lowest levels during the Greek Dark Ages before rising again during the Roman Warm Period. Plankton and precipitation data support these findings.
The spread of ironworking technology from Bulgaria and Romania in the 13th and 12th centuries BC may have also played a role. Iron was better than bronze for weapons, allowing larger armies to defeat smaller ones that used chariots.
Primary sources describe large-scale migrations during the Late Bronze Age. Drought in the Nile Valley may have caused the Sea Peoples to move across the Mediterranean. Crop failures, famine, and population decline from the Nile’s poor flow and Sea Peoples’ migration contributed to political instability in New Kingdom Egypt. A general systems collapse may explain cultural changes between the Urnfield culture (13th–12th centuries BC) and the rise of the Celtic Hallstatt culture (10th–9th centuries BC).
Recent evidence suggests the collapse of Mycenaean Greece, Hittite Anatolia, and the Levant may have been worsened by an early strain of the bubonic plague brought by the Sea Peoples or other migrants.
Some Egyptologists link the Hekla 3 volcanic eruption in Iceland (dated to 1159 BC) to famines during the Bronze Age collapse. The eruption may have caused a volcanic winter. Other estimates place the eruption between 1021 and 1135 BC, or 929 BC, or "3000 BP" (before present).
Robert Drews suggests the rise of massed infantry, using new weapons like cast spearheads, long swords, and javelins, changed warfare. The spread of bronze foundries shows mass production of bronze became important in the Aegean. Homer used "spears" to mean "warriors."
New weapons, used by large groups of soldiers, could have overwhelmed chariot-based armies. This would have caused states relying on chariots to collapse, as raiders attacked and destroyed cities.
Aftermath
Robert Drews called the collapse "arguably the worst disaster in ancient history, even more severe than the fall of the Western Roman Empire." Stories from that time spoke of a "lost golden age." For example, Hesiod described the Ages of Gold, Silver, and Bronze, which were separated from the harsh modern Age of Iron by the Age of Heroes. Rodney Castleden suggests that memories of the Bronze Age collapse may have influenced Plato's story of Atlantis in Timaeus and Critias.
Only a few strong states survived the Bronze Age collapse, including Assyria (though it was temporarily weakened), the New Kingdom of Egypt (also weakened), the Phoenician city-states, and Elam. Even these surviving states faced challenges. By the end of the 12th century BC, Elam weakened after being defeated by Nebuchadnezzar I, who briefly revived Babylonian power before losing to the Assyrians. After the death of Ashur-bel-kala in 1056 BC, Assyria declined for about a century. Its empire shrank significantly by 1020 BC, leaving it in control only of nearby areas, though its central region remained well-protected. By the time of Wenamun, Phoenicia had regained independence from Egypt.
Gradually, by the end of the following Dark Age, remnants of the Hittites formed small Syro-Hittite states in Cilicia and the Levant, where new states combined Hittite and Aramean groups. Starting in the mid-10th century BC, several small Aramean kingdoms formed in the Levant, and the Philistines settled in southern Canaan. There, Canaanite speakers had grouped into separate polities such as Israel, Moab, Edom, and Ammon.